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Introduction to Healthcare Science > Nervous system > Flashcards

Nervous system Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the Central nervous system consist of?

A
  • Brain, spinal chord and nerves.
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2
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system consist of?

A
  • Sensory neurones, ganglia and nerves that connect to one another and to the CNS.
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3
Q

What is ganglion?

A
  • a nerve cell cluster or a group of nerve cell bodies located in the autonomic nervous system.
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4
Q

What are the two main subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system?

A
  • Somatic: voluntary component. Consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal chord with muscles and sensory receptors in the skin. (Striated muscle)
  • Autonomic (ANS): involuntary component. The autonomic nervous system regulates certain body processes, such as blood pressure and rate of breathing that work without conscious effort. (Smooth and cardiac muscle).
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5
Q

What are nerves?

A
  • Nerves are cylindrical bundles of fibres that start at the brain and central cord and branch out to every other part of the body.
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6
Q

What are neurones?

A
  • Send signals to other cells through thin fibres called axons, which cause chemicals known as neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses.
  • A synapse gives a command to a cell and the entire communication process typically takes only a fraction of a second.
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7
Q

What is the nervous system?

A
  • Complex collection of nerves and specialised cells known as neurones that transmit signals between different parts of the body.
  • Structurally the nervous system has two components - the CNS and PNS.
  • The CNS is made up of brain spinal chord and nerves.
  • The PNS consists of sensory neurones, ganglia (clusters of neurones) and nerves that connect to one another and to the CNS.
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8
Q

What are sensory neurones?

A
  • they react to physical stimuli such as light, sound and touch and send feedback to the CNS about the body’s surrounding environment.
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9
Q

What are motor neurones?

A
  • located in the CNS or the peripheral ganglia they transmit signals to activate the muscles or glands.
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10
Q

What are glial cells?

A
  • specialised cells that support, protect or nourish nerve cells.
  • they are non-neuronal cells.
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11
Q

What is the function of the nervous system?

A
  • the body’s master controlling and communicating system.
  • it has three functions:
    (1) sensory input: gathers information from sensory receptors. (E.g. Exteroceptors, interoceptors and propioceptors).
    (2) integration: processes and interprets sensory input (processes info/compares to existing knowledge).
    (3) motor output: activates effector organs to cause a response (I.e. Control behaviour = motor function, control physiology and metabolism = autonomic function).
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12
Q

What is interesting about the nervous system of single celled organisms?

A
  • they don’t have one.
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13
Q

What is an exteroceptor?

A
  • a sensory receptor which receives external stimuli.
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14
Q

What is an interoceptor?

A
  • a sensory receptor which receives stimuli from within the body, especially from the gut and other internal organs.
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15
Q

What is a proprioceptor?

A
  • a sensory receptor which receives stimuli from within the body, especially one that responds to position and movement.
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16
Q

What is the somatic nervous system (sometimes known as voluntary nervous system)?

A
  • Part of the peripheral nervous system associated with skeletal muscle voluntary control of body movements.
  • It consists of both afferent and efferent nerves.
  • The somatic nervous system consists of three parts: spinal nerves, cranial nerves and interneurones.
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17
Q

What are afferent nerves?

A
  • responsible for relaying sensation from the body to the CNS.
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18
Q

What are efferent nerves?

A
  • responsible for sending out commands from the CNS to the body, stimulating muscle contraction.
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19
Q

What are spinal nerves?

A
  • they are peripheral nerves that carry sensory information into and motor commands out of the spinal chord.
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20
Q

What are cranial nerves?

A
  • they are the nerves fibres that carry information into and out of the brain stem.
  • They include smell, vision, eye muscles, mouth, taste, ear, neck, shoulders, tongue.
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21
Q

What are interneurones?

A
  • These nerves create neural circuits, enabling communication between sensory and motor neurones and the CNS.
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22
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • Is a division of the peripheral nervous system that influences the function of internal organs.
  • Control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate.
  • Within the brain the ANS is regulated by the hypothalamus.
  • The ANS has two branches the parasympathetic and the sympathetic nervous system.
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23
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A
  • Located just above the brain stem but below the thalamus and is part of the lambic system.
  • It is the proportion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions.
  • One of most important is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
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24
Q

What is the limbic system?

A
  • Complex set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, right under the cerebrum.
  • It supports a variety of functions including emotion, behaviour, motivations and long term memory.
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25
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A
  • Collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distinct target organs.
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26
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A
  • One of two main divisions of the ANS.
  • “Speeds things up”.
  • Stimulates the body’s fight or flight response.
  • Constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis.
  • Accelerator.
  • (Stress/increased metabolic demand).
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27
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A
  • One of two divisions of ANS.
  • Responsible for stimulation of “rest and digest” or “feed and breed” activities that occur when the body is at rest especially after eating including salivation, urination and digestion.
  • “Slows things down”.
  • Brake.
  • (Growth and repair).
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28
Q

Nervous system vs endocrine system. Explain.

A
  • Nervous system: nerves/muscles and has rapid action, short duration and local action.
  • Endocrine system: glands and has slow action, prolonged effect and is widespread.
  • Although they look like very different systems there is lots of crossover of function.
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29
Q

What is a hormone?

A
  • Class of signalling molecule produced by glands of multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour.
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30
Q

How could you view a neurone (nerve cell)?

A
  • Immunohistochemistry could be used to stain for a particular neurotransmitter.
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31
Q

What is a neuron?

A
  • Specialised cells of nervous system that transmit signals throughout the body.
  • They can sense internal and external stimuli, process information and also direct muscle actions.
  • Excitable (electrically active).
  • Chemical communication at synapses.
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32
Q

What are the most important structures of a neuron?

A
  • the long extensions that extend out of the cell body known as axons and dendrites.
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33
Q

What is a dendrite?

A
  • role is input into neurone.

- Extensions on neurones that receive signals and conduct them towards the cell body.

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34
Q

What is an axon?

A
  • role is output of neurone.

- Extensions of neurones that conduct signals away from the cell body to other cells.

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35
Q

What is a perikaryon, soma or cell body?

A
  • Bulbous end of a neurone containing the cell nucleus.
  • Function is processing.
  • Will have lots of mitochondria for processing.
  • Important to note that one cell nucleus can give rise to many thousands of axons.
36
Q

What is interesting about neurones in the mammalian brain?

A
  • they don’t divide.
37
Q

What’s interesting about neural tumours?

A
  • they are very uncommon.
38
Q

Brain tumours are usually of which origin?

A
  • Usually of glial origin.
39
Q

For every neurone in the brain how many supporting cells (glial?)

A
  • 10 supporting cells.
40
Q

What are the characteristics of glia?

A
  • Not excitable.
  • Can divide postnatally.
  • Smaller than neurones.
  • More numerous than neurones.
  • provide support.
  • involved in repair.
  • Nurture/metabolism.
  • Defence.
41
Q

Where is neural tissue derived from?

A
  • Ectoderm.
42
Q

What is a glioma?

A
  • Type of tumour that starts in the brain or spine.
  • Called Glioma because arises from glial cells.
  • Most common site of gliomas is the brain.
  • Malignant tumour of astrocytes.
43
Q

What is a neural tube defect?

A
  • Group of conditions in which an opening in the spinal chord or brain remains from early in human development.
  • In 3rd week of pregnancy, called gastrulation, specialised cells on the dorsal side of the embryo begin to change shape and form the neural tube.
  • if the neural tube does not close completely a NTD develops.e.g. Spina bifidia affects the spine.
44
Q

What is the brain consist of?

A
  • Made up of specialised areas that work together.
  • Cortex: outermost layer of brain cells. Thinking and voluntary movements begin in the cortex.
  • Brain stem: between the spinal chord and the rest of the brain. basic functions like breathing and sleep are controlled here.
  • Basal ganglia: cluster of structures in the centre of the brain. They coordinate messages between other brain areas.
  • Cerebellum: is at the base and back of the brain and is responsible for coordination and balance.
45
Q

Name the four lobes of the brain?

A
  • Frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital.
46
Q

What are the functions of each of the four brain lobes?

A
  • Frontal lobe: responsible for problem solving, motor function and judgement.
  • Parietal lobes: manage sensation, hand writing and body position.
  • Temporal lobes: involved with memory and hearing.
  • Occipital lobes: contain the brains visual processing system.
47
Q

What are meninges?

A
  • Membranes that envelope the brain and spinal chord of the CNS.
  • In mammals they consist of three layers: the dura matter, the pia matter and arachnoid matter.
  • Primary function of the meninges along with the cerebrospinal fluid is to protect the CNS.
48
Q

What are the characteristics of neurones?

A
  • excitable (electrically active).

- chemical communication at synapses.

49
Q

What is the forebrain involved in?

A

Conscious thought so:

  • Thinking.
  • Learning.
  • Memory.
  • Movement.
50
Q

What is the brain stem involved in?

A

Unconscious thought so:

  • Survival.
  • Breathing.
  • Eating.
  • Sleeping.
51
Q

Describe the spinal cord from top to bottom?

A
  • medulla oblongata.
  • skull.
  • foramen magnum.
  • cervical enlargement.
  • thoracic region.
  • lumber enlargement.
  • Sacral region (the conus medullaris and filum terminale are within this region).
52
Q

What does grey matter of the CNS contain?

A
  • Consists of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and myelinated as well as unmyelinated axons), glial cells (astroglia and oligodendrocytes), synapses and capillaries.
53
Q

What is the difference between white and grey matter other than the colour?

A
  • Grey contains numerous cell bodies and few myelinated axons.
  • white contains relatively few cells bodies and is composed chiefly of long range myelinated axon tracts.
54
Q

What does white matter of the CNS contain?

A
  • Consists mostly of glial cells and myelinated axons that transmit signals from one region of the cerebrum to another and between the cerebrum and lower brain centres.
55
Q

What are white and grey matter associated with?

A
  • White matter actively affects how the brain learns and functions.
  • Grey matter is associated with processing and cognition.
56
Q

Which regions of the spinal cord are associated with parasympathetic?

A
  • medulla oblongata.
  • foramen magnum.
  • cervical enlargement.
  • sacral region.
57
Q

What regions of the spinal cord are associated with sympathetic?

A
  • thoracic region.

- lumbar enlargement.

58
Q

In the somatic nervous system what kind of receptor is found in skeletal muscle?

A
  • nACh-R (nicotinic ACh receptor) (ionotropic).
59
Q

What do neuromuscular blocking drugs do?

A
  • They block neuromuscular transmission at the neuromuscular junction, causing paralysis of affected skeletal muscles.
60
Q

Name two types of neuromuscular blocking drug?

A
  • Depolarising nAChR agonists and non-depolarising nAChR antagonists.
61
Q

What do depolarising nAChR agonists do?

A
  • Rapid onset and offset, short duration.

- Useful for tracheal intubation, ECT and dislocations.

62
Q

What do non depolarising nAChR antagonists do?

A
  • Slower onset and longer duration, useful for surgery and reversible with anticholinesterase drugs.
63
Q

In the parasympathetic nervous system what kinds of receptors are found?

A
  • nACh-R (muscarinic ACh receptor) (metabotropic) (located post ganglionic) and nACh-R (nicotinic ACh receptor) (ionotropic) (located pre-ganglionic).
64
Q

What is the dominant neurotransmitter in the parasympathetic and somatic nervous systems?

A
  • ACh (acetylcholine).
65
Q

What length are the parasympathetic ganglionic fibres?

A
  • Pre = long.

- Post = short.

66
Q

What neurotransmitters are released in the sympathetic nervous system?

A
  • There are two neurones in a chain. The first releases ACh (acetylcholine) (pre-ganglionic) and the other releases NA and A (nor-adrenaline and adrenaline) (post-ganglionic).
67
Q

Explain the synthesis of catecholamines? (These are any of a class of aromatic amines which includes a number of neurotransmitters such as adrenaline and dopamine).

A

Tyrosine -> dopamine -> nor-adrenaline

So nor-adrenaline is synthesised from dopamine and dopamine synthesised from tyrosine

68
Q

What are adrenoceptors?

A
  • Also known as adrenergic receptors they are a class of g-coupled protein receptors that are targets of the catecholamines (especially nor-adrenaline and adrenaline).
  • Many cells possess these receptors and a binding of the catecholamine to the receptor will generally stimulate the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight response).
69
Q

What is a g-coupled protein receptor?

A
  • Large protein family of receptors that sense molecules outside the cell and activate inside signal transduction pathways and, ultimately cellular responses.
  • Coupling with g-proteins they are called seven-transmembrane receptors because they pass through the cell membrane seven times.
  • The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include hormones and neurotransmitters.
70
Q

What is an ionotropic receptor?

A
  • Transmembrane molecules that can open or close a channel that would allow smaller particles to travel in or out of the cell (allow different kinds of ions in and out).
  • Generally closed until a small molecule (called a ligand (I.e. Neurotransmitter) binds to the receptor, as this happens proteins that make up the channel change shape to create a small opening.
71
Q

What is a metabotropic receptor?

A
  • Do not have a channel, they are linked to a small chemical called a g-protein.
  • When ligand binds to the receptor it activates the G protein (changes it), which then activates another molecule (secondary messenger - chemical who’s function is to go and activate other particles).
  • Then one of two things happen:
  • secondary messenger travels until it binds to and opens ion channels located somewhere else on the membrane.
  • secondary messenger will go and activate other intermediate molecules inside the cell.
72
Q

What are the five classes of adrenoceptor?

A
  • alpha 1.
  • alpha 2.
  • beta 1.
  • beta 2.
  • beta 3.
73
Q

What is the function on adrenoceptor alpha 1?

A
  • Smooth muscle of blood vessels, uterus, bladder = contraction.
  • Smooth muscle of GI tract wall = relaxation.
74
Q

What is the function of adrenoceptor alpha 2?

A
  • Smooth muscle of blood vessels = vasoconstriction.
75
Q

What is the function of adrenoceptor beta 1?

A
  • Heart = increased rate and force of contraction.

- GI tract sphincter = relaxation.

76
Q

What is the function of adrenoceptor beta 2?

A
  • Smooth muscle of blood vessels = vasodilation.

- Smooth muscle of bronchi = bronchodilation.

77
Q

What is the function of adrenoceptor beta 3?

A
  • White fat = lipolysis.

- Brown fat (neonates and non-human) = thermogenesis.

78
Q

What is an agonist?

A
  • A substance which initiates a physiological response when combined with a receptor.
79
Q

What is an antagonist?

A
  • A substance which interferes with or inhibits the physiological response of another.
80
Q

What is a sympathomimetric drug?

A
  • Stimulant compounds which mimic the effects of agonists of the sympathetic nervous system such as the catecholamines.
  • They are used to treat cardiac arrest and low blood pressure.
  • They can act by directly activating post synaptic receptors, blocking breakdown and re uptake of certain neurotransmitters or stimulating production and release of catecholamines.
81
Q

What is a sympatholytic drug?

A
  • Drug that inhibits the post ganglionic functioning of the sympathetic nervous system.
  • May be used as anti hypertensives or to treat anxiety.
  • Inhibits the signals of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline.
82
Q

What is vasoconstriction?

A
  • Constriction of blood vessels which increases blood pressure.
83
Q

What is vasodilation?

A
  • Dilation of blood vessels which decreases blood pressure.
84
Q

Name examples of a sympathomimetric drug?

A
  • Salbutamol beta 2 used for asthma: bronchodilation.

- Adrenaline beta > alpha used for anaphylactic shock (e.g. Acute allergic reaction).

85
Q

Name examples of a sympatholytic drug?

A
  • Atenolol beta 1: hypertension (decreases heart force).

- Prazosin alpha 1: hypertension (decreases peripheral vasoconstriction).

86
Q

What happens when an individual is stressed?

A
  • Dual autonomic and endocrine control of the adrenal gland comes into play.
  • Adrenaline - heart rate increase, blood pressure increases.
  • Glucocorticoids e.g. Cortisol - energy metabolism, lipolysis.

Introduction to Healthcare Science (23 decks)

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