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Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy. > Nervous System. > Flashcards

Nervous System. Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three inter-related functions of the nervous system?

A
  • Sensory Input: Sensory Receptors.
  • Integration: Interpretation.
  • Motor Output: Activation of Effector Organs.
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2
Q

PNS?

A

Peripheral Nervous System: Carries Info to and from CNS.

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3
Q

Afferent Nerves?

A

Sensory nerves of the PNS, which carry info to the CNS.

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4
Q

Efferent Nerves?

A

Motor Nerves of the PNS, Carries info from CNS to Effector Organ.

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5
Q

Describe Somatic Vs Visceral Afferent Nerves?

A

Somatic: Sensory Innervation of the Outer Body (General & Special).
Visceral: Sensory Innervation of the Inner Body (General & Special).

Afferent/ Sensory: Carries to CNS.

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6
Q

Afferent Somatic: General Vs Special?

A

General: Senses with Receptors Spread Throughout the outer body.
Special: Senses with receptors Concentrated in specialized areas of the outer body.

Afferent Somatic: Sensory innervation of the Outer Body.

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7
Q

What are the 4 main Afferent Somatic Special Senses?

A

Sensory, Outerbody, Concentrated Receptors.
* Vision.
* Olfaction.
* Audition.
* Equilibrium.
* Magnetoception.
* Electroception.

NOT TASTE= Visceral.

Afferent/ Sensory, Somatic/ Outerbody, Special/ Concentrated Receptors.

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8
Q

What are the 5 main Afferent Somatic General Senses?

A

Sensory, Outer body, Widespread.
* Pain.
* Temperature.
* Pressure/ Touch.
* Vibration.
* Proprioception.

Afferent/ Sensory, Somatic/ Outerbody, General Widespread Receptors.

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9
Q

Afferent Visceral: General Vs Special?

A

General: Senses with Receptors Spread Throughout the Inner body.
Special: Senses with receptors Concentrated in specialized areas in Inner Body.

Afferent Visceral: Sensory innervation of the Inner Body.

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10
Q

What are the 7 main Afferent Visceral General Senses?

A
  • Pain.
  • Temperature.
  • Stretch.
  • Nausea.
  • Irritation.
  • Hunger.
  • Chemical Changes.

Afferent/ Sensory, Visceral/ Innerbody, General Widespread Receptors.

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11
Q

What is the only Afferent Visceral Special Sense?

A

Taste.

Afferent/ Sensory, Visceral/ Innerbody, Special/ Concentrated Receptors.

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12
Q

Describe Somatic Vs Visceral Efferent Nerves?

A

Somatic: Motor Innervation of the outer body (Skeletal Muscles).
Visceral: Motor Innervation of the inner body (General & Special).

Efferent/ Motor: Carries out Info from CNS to Effector Organ.

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13
Q

Efferent Somatic: General Vs Special?

A

Does not have these subdivisions.
Efferent Somatic is Motor Innervation of the Skeletal Muscles.

Efferent Somatic AKA: Voluntary Nervous System.

Efferent Somatic: Motor Innervation of Outer Body.

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14
Q

What type of motor nerves innervate the skeletal muscles?

A

Efferent Somatic.

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15
Q

Efferent Visceral: General Vs. Special?

A

General: Motor Nerves Spread Throughout the Inner body (Autonomic/ Involuntary Nervous System).
Special: Motor Nerves Concentrated in specialized areas in Inner Body.

Efferent Visceral: Motor innervation of the inner body.

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16
Q

What are the two names the Efferent Visceral General Nerve Group goes by?
What do they Innervate?

A
  • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) or Involuntary Nervous Sytem(INS).
  • Innervates Involuntary Muscles and Glands.
    (This Nerve system Consists of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous systems.)

Efferent/ Motor, Visceral/ Deep, General/ Widespread.

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17
Q

What do the Efferent Visceral Special Nerves Innervate?

A

Pharyngeal Arches and it’s Derivatives. (Branchiomeric Muscles.)

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18
Q

What are the 2 divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System?

A
  • Parasympathetic Nervous System: “Fight or Flight” Response.
  • Sympathetic Nervous System: “Rest & Digest” Response.

They work in opposites.

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19
Q

Cells which send Nerve Impulses?

A

Neurons.

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20
Q

Cells which support Nervous system?

A

Neuroglia.

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21
Q

What Nutrient do Neurons Require a lot of?
Why?

A

Lots of Glucose & Oxygen, This is due to neurons having a high metabolism.

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22
Q

What are Nissl Bodies?

A

AKA: Chromatophilic Bodies:
These are clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.
Serve to Produce Proteins and Repair the Nucleolemma.

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23
Q

How are nissl bodies held together in the parikaryon Cytoplasm?

A

Parikaryon: Cell Body.
In the cytoplasm the Neurofilaments/ Fibrils between the Nissle Bodies and help resist stress on the perikaryon.

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24
Q

What class of Fiber are Neurofibrils/ Neurofilaments?

A

Intermediate Fibers.
These run between Nissl bodies in the cytoplasm and help resist stress on the Perikaryon.

Perikaryon: Cell Body.

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25
Q

Where are most Perikarya Located?

A

CNS: Protected by Skull and Vertebrae. While Axons are long and run from the cell to the next location/ signal transmission.
Dendrites usually stay near the Perikaryon.

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26
Q

When perikarya are outside of the Central Nervous system what are they called?

A

They will be in clusters surrounded by connective tissue & Satellite Glial Cells and called a Ganglion.

Satellite Glia = type of Neuroglia (Supporting Cells.)

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27
Q

What is a Ganglion?

A

A cluster of Perikarya outside of the CNS.
They will surrounded by Connective tissue and Satellite Glial Cells.

Satellite Glia = type of Neuroglia (Supporting Cells.)

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28
Q

What are the 2 classes of processes which radiate from Neruons?

A
  • Dendrites: Branching, Numerous, Short, Contain Nissl, Recieve Signal.
  • Axons: Less Branching, Usually only one, long, Contain Fibrils, Send Impulse.
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29
Q

Swollen region of perikaryon where Axon arises from?

A

Axonal Hillock.

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30
Q

What is an Axon Collateral?

A

When an axon branches (Rare & at 90º to the axon.)

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31
Q

What are the little branches are the terminal end of an axon called?

A

Telodendria.

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32
Q

What are the knob-like endings at the end of the telodendria?

A

Axon Terminals/ Bouton.
They Contain Neurotransmitters.

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33
Q

What cells Produce Myelin?

A

Schwann Cells- One Axon.
Oligodentrocytes- Many Axons.

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34
Q

What forms the Neurilemma?

A

Sheath of Schwann Cells.

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35
Q

Structure:
Axon + Myelin Sheath?

A

Nerve Fiber.

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36
Q

What Sheaths a Nerve Fiber?

A

Fibrous Endoneurium.

Nerve Fiber: Axon + Sheath of Schwann.

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37
Q

What is a Bundle of Nerve Fibers Called?

A

A Nerve Fascicle.

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38
Q

What ensheathes a nerve Fascicle?

A

Perineurium.

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39
Q

What is a bundle of Nerve Fascicles Called?

A

Nerve Organ.

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40
Q

What ensheathes a nerve organ?

A

Epineurium.

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41
Q

Axons travel in groups (Nerve Fascicles) what are these groups called in the CNS Vs PNS?

A

Central N.S.: Fiber Tracts.
Peripheral C.S.: Nerves.

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42
Q

Neuron with 3 or more radiating Processes?

A

Multipolar Neuron (Most Common.)
Usually only one axon.

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43
Q

Neuron with 2 radiating processes?

A

Bipolar Neuron.
(One Axon, One Dendrite.)
Some Special Senses.
Processes May fuse into a Pseudounipolar Neuron.

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44
Q

Neuron with only one Radiating Process?

A

Unipolar/ Pseudounipolar Neuron.
(One process which splits into an axon and dendrite.)
Found making up sensory nerves, belived to be a fusion of the processes from a bipolar neuron.

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45
Q

Where are the Perikarya of Afferent Nerves Usually Located?

A

Afferent: Sensory.
Located in the PNS within Ganglia.
This is becuase Afferent Nerves send info to the CNS.

Mostly Multipolar Neurons.

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46
Q

Where are the Perikarya of Efferent Nerves Usually Located?

A

Efferent: Motor.
Located in the CNS.

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47
Q

What are the Neurons Which serve to connect Sensory and Motor Neurons?

A

Interneurons/ Association Neurons.
These are common in things like reflexes.
EX: Pulling hand away from something hot without wasting time for the brain to interpret the signal first.

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48
Q

What is the area where signal Transmission occurs?

A

The Synapse.

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49
Q

What are the Two types of Synapses?

A
  • Chemical.
  • Electrical.
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50
Q

In a chemical Synapse what is the Chemical Called?

A

Neurotransmitter.

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51
Q

What is the gap in a synapse called?

A

Synaptic Cleft.

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52
Q

What cells of the Nervous system can reproduce throughout our lives?

A

Neuroglia.
(Supporting Cells.)

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53
Q

What are the neuroglia of the CNS called?
What are the 4 Types?

A

“Glial Cells”
* Astrocytes: Most Abundant.
* Microglia: Smallest & Phagocytic.
* Ependymal Cells: Lines Hollow Spaces.
* Oligodendrocytes: Myelinates Several Axons.

All of these are only prevalent in the CNS.

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54
Q

Neuroglia which is responsible for delivering nutrients from blood vessels to the neuron?

A

Astrocytes.
They have many Radiating processes which attach to blood vessels and Neurons, hence the name.

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55
Q

What are the 4 functions of Astrocytes?

A
  • Deliver nutrients from Blood to Neuron.
  • Regulate ion balance in Environment.
  • Recycle Neurotransmitters.
  • Role in Memory Formation.
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56
Q

Least Abundant of the Glial Cells?

A

Microglia.

Glial = CNS Neuroglia.

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57
Q

Glial Cells which are Phagocytic, defending the CNS & Consuming dead neurons.

A

Microglia.
Also the Least Abundant & Smallest Glial Cell.

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58
Q

Glial Cells Which are a Simple Cuboidal Ciliated Epithelium?

A

Ependymal Cells.

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59
Q

Which Glial Cells Line the Hollow Spaces of the Brain?

A

Ependymal Cells.
Simple Cuboidal Ciliated Epithelium.

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60
Q

What is the Function of the Cilia on the Glial Ependymal Cells?

A

The Cilia serves to circulate/ tissue diffusion of the cerebrospinal fluid thoughout the hollow brain spaces. (Lined by these cells.)

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61
Q

Glial cell which can enseath/ Mylinate mutliple CNS Neurons at once?

A

Oligodendrocytes.
Glial: CNS Supporting Cells.

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62
Q

What are the two Neuroglia Cells of the PNS?

A
  • Satellite Cells: Ganglia Protection.
  • Schwann Cells: Myelination.
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63
Q

What is Myelin?

A

A Lipoprotein Produced by Schwann Cells/ Oligodendrocytes as a Membrane Modification.

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64
Q

What are the 3 Zones/ Layers of the Embryonic Spinal Cord?

A
  • Marginal Zone: Outer Most.
  • Mantle/ Intermediate Zone: Middle Layer.
  • Ventricular/ Germinal Layer: Inner Layer.

These Surround the Neurocoel (Hollow Space) of the newly differentiated Spinal Cord.

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65
Q

What is the Neurocoel?

A

Hollow Space of the Neural Tube, becomes:
* Central Canal of the Spinal Cord.
* Ventricular Spaces of the brain.

Both Lined by Ependymal Cells.

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66
Q

Layer of the Embyronic Spinal Cord which has low cellular content?

A

Marginal Zone/ Layer.
Outermost Layer.

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67
Q

Layer of the Embyronic Spinal Cord which has highly Mitotic Cells?

A

Ventricular/ Germinal Zone/Layer.
Innermost.

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68
Q

Layer of the Embyronic Spinal Cord which contains Neuroblasts and Neuroglial Stem Cells?

A

Mantle/ Intermediate
Zone/ Layer.
Middle Layer.

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69
Q

The Middle Layer of the Embyronic Spinal Cord, The Mantle Zone, Has Neuroblasts and Neuroglial stem Cells, Where are these dervied from?

A

These are derived from the Stem Cells of the Ventricular/ Germinal Zone.

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70
Q

What are Neuroblasts?

A

Progenitor Cell to the Neuron.

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71
Q

What are Neuroglial Stem Cells?

A

Progenitor Cells to Neuroglia.

Neuroglia: Cells Which Support Neurons.

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72
Q

What does the Marginal Zone develop into?

A

Develops into White Matter.
Axons form this layer.
(From Perikarya of the Mantle Zone.)

Marginal Zone: Outer Layer of Embryonic Spinal Cord.

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73
Q

What does the Mantle Develop into?

A

Develops into Gray Matter.
Made up of Perikarya, & Neuroglia.
(From proliferation of progenitor cells in the Mantle.)

Mantle Becomes Gray Matter.

Mantle: Middle Layer of the Embryonic Spinal Cord.
Neuroblasts and Neuroglial Stem Progenitor Cells.

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74
Q

What does the Ventricular Zone Develop into?

A

Develops into the Ependymal Cells Lining the central Canal.
(Stem Cells traveled into the Mantle.)

Ventricular Zone: Innermost Layer of Embryonic Spinal Cord.

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75
Q

What Neural Parts of the Embryo have a Sulcus Limitans?

A
  • Hindbrain.
  • Midbrain.
  • Spinal Cord.
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76
Q

What Separates the Alar and Basal Plates?

A

Landmark: Sulcus Limitans.

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77
Q

What is the Alar Plate?

A

The plate above the Sulcus Limitans, which Develops into Afferent Nerves.

Afferent: Sensory.

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78
Q

What is the Basal Plate?

A

The plate below the Sulcus Limitans, which Develops into Efferent Nerves.

Efferent: Motor.

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79
Q

The Dorsal Horns of the Spinal Cord develop from what?
What type of nerves?

A

Develops from Alar Plate, Afferent Nerves.

Afferent: Sensory.
Alar Plate: Above Sulcus Limitans.

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80
Q

The Ventral Horns of the Spinal Cord develop from what?
What type of nerves?

A

Develops from Basal Plate, Efferent Nerves.

Efferent: Motor.
Basal Plate: Below Sulcus Limitans.

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81
Q
A
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82
Q

What is the General Pathway of an Efferent Somatic Nerve impulse from the CNS?

A

From the Spinal Cord, Axon Synapses Directly to the Effector Organ: Skeletal Muscle.

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83
Q

What is the General Pathway of an Efferent Visceral General Nerve Impulse from the CNS?

A

From the spinal cord(Preganglionic), Axon Synapses with a (Post) Ganglionic Nueron’s Dendrite, then that impulse is carried on the ganlionic axon to the effector organ (ANS Organs)

ANS AKA Efferent Visceral General.

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84
Q

What are Pre & Post Ganglionic Neurons?

A
  • Pre: Neurons from CNS whose axons synapse with Ganglionic Neurons.
    Origin: Mantle/ CNS.
  • Post: Neurons of the autonomic associated Ganglia.
    Origin: Neural Crest Cells/ PNS.
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85
Q

The Axon of the Postganglionic Neuron of the ANS is usually?

A

UnMyelinated.
-Short Distance from effector organ so slow speed is ok.

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86
Q

What Germ layer do Afferent & Efferent Nerves Generally Arise from?

A

Both of Ectodermal Origin.

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87
Q

What is the Neural Crest?

A

Cells that form along the edges of the neural tube during Neurulation. These cells are multipotent, and break into paired metameric series.

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88
Q

Observe Neural Crest.

A

Neurulation Via Neurocoel.

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89
Q

How many Neural Crest Cells per Body Metamere Segment?

A

2, One Pair.
One Cell on each side of the organism to become the Dorsal Root Ganlions.

90
Q

Some Neural Crest Cells become Afferent Neurons, what is the morphology of these new Neurons?

A

Bipolar Neurons.
They will usually become pseuounipolar Neurons.

Crest Cells only deviate into the PNS varieties.

91
Q

What morphology of neuron is seen in mature dorsal root ganglia?

A

Pseudounipolar.

92
Q

During the Bipolar Stage of Dorsal Root ganglia what are each of the processes attached to?

A

Only 2.
Axon: Transmits to CNS.
Dendrite: Receives Signal from Receptor Organ.

93
Q

What are the Neurons which recieve signals from receptor organs called?

A

First Order Neurons: Primarily Located in the Dorsal Root Ganglia.

Mature: Pseudounipolar.
Embryonic: Bipolar.

94
Q

What Neurons Receive the Signal from the Dorsal Root Ganlia?

A

Neuroblasts in the Alar Plate: Specifically the Soma of Multipolar Neurons in the Dorsal Gray matter.

Alar Plate → Dorsal Spinal Cord: Horns, Gray matter, & White Matter.

95
Q

The Neurons which recieve the signal from the neurons in the dorsal root ganglia are reffered to as what?

A

These Multipolar Neurons in the Dorsal Gray Matter are Reffered to as second order Neurons.
(Dorsal Root Ganlia: First Order Neurons.)

All Afferent/ Sensory Nerves.

96
Q

What are the 3 types of 1st order Neurons whose perikarya do not Reside in the Dorsal Root Ganglia?

A
  • Olfactory (CNI): Olfactory Mucosa.
  • Optic (CNII): Retina.
  • CN III-X: Brain Stem.

(1-10)

97
Q

what are the Cells which give rise to the Optic Nerve Called?

A

Ganglion Cells.
Optic Nerve: CNII.

98
Q

Where are the soma of Cranial Nerves III-X located?
Cranial Nerves XI&XII?

A

CN III-X: Brain Stem.
CN XI&XII: Cervical Spinal Cord.

Only 12 pairs of Cranial Nerves.
3-10, 11&12.

99
Q

What part of the Vertebra do the spinal nerves travel through?

A

Vertebral Canal & Intervertebral Foramina.

100
Q

What is the Outer Connective Tissue of the Spinal Cord and Brain?

Excluding Fish.

A

Meninges.
Helps Protect.
Fish: Menix Primitiva.

Epineurium Found in the PNS (Axon Bundles), not really much in the CNS.

101
Q

What is the Connective Tissue sheath of the CNS called in Fish?

A

Menix Primitiva.

Precursor to meninges of more modern animals.

102
Q

In non-Mammalian Vertebrates what the layers of their Meninges?

Excluding Fish: Menix Primitiva.

A
  1. Tough C.t.: Dura Mater.
  2. Vascular: Leptomenix.

Lept/o: Thin.

103
Q

What are the layers of the Mammalian Meninges, from superficial to deep?

A

Superificial:
1. Tough C.t.: Dura Mater.
2. Collagenous: Arachnoid Mater.
3. Thin C.t.: Pia Mater.

Dura: Tough, Arachnoid: Spider “web-like”, Pia: Tender.

104
Q

Dura Mater of Spinal Cord Vs Brain?

A
  • Spinal Cord: Surrounded by Adipose (Inbetween dura & Vertebra.)
  • Brain: No Adipose. 2 layed, superficial layer attaches in many places to the periosteum of skull.
105
Q

Which layer of the meninges anchors blood vessels?

A

Arachnoid Mater.
The “web-like” Collagen Bundles Anchor the BLD Vessels.

106
Q

What anatomy marks the beggining of the spinal Cord?

A

Where it meets the Foramen Magnum and Medulla Oblongata.

107
Q

Brain Parts?

108
Q

For most Vertebrates the spinal cords ends in the lumbar spine, what it is called after this?

A

Tapering Structure Called: Conus Medullaris.

109
Q

What is the tapering strucutre which is at the end of the spinal Cord?

A

Conus Medullaris.

110
Q

Numerus Spinal Nerves Taper off the of Conus Medullaris Innervating the Lower Limbs, Bladder, Anus, & Perineum.
What structure is formed by this?

A

Cauda Equina.

111
Q

what are the 3 things Gray Matter is Composed of?

A
  • Perikayons.
  • Unmyelinated Axons.
  • Dendrites.
112
Q

What Connects the Right and Left halves of Gray Matter?

A

Gray Commisure.

113
Q

What are the Lateral Horns of the Spinal Cord?
Where are they Found?

A
  • These are Soma of Efferent Cells/ Just like the Ventral Horns.
  • Present only in thoracic and Cranial Lumber Portions of the spinal Cord.
114
Q

What are the 3 classes of Axon Tracts in the White Matter of the Spinal Cord?

A
  • Ascending: Info From Receptors to Brain.
  • Descending: Info from from Brain to Effector Organs.
  • Commissural: Carry info from one side of Spinal Cord to the other.

White Matter is Primarily Axons.

115
Q

What info is Carried by Ventral Roots of the Spinal Cord?
What is it Composed of?

A
  • Efferent CNS to PNS.
  • Composed of Efferent Nerve Axons: Visceral & Somatic.

Efferent: Motor.

116
Q

What info is Carried by Dorsal Roots of the Spinal Cord?
What is it Composed of?

A
  • Afferent PNS (Receptor Organs.) to CNS.
  • Composed of Afferent Nerve Axons: Visceral & Somatic.
117
Q

What Superclass Spinal Cord is Described?

  • Non-convergent Spinal Roots.
  • Dorsal Root contains some Efferent Visceral Nerves.
  • No Dorsal Root Ganglia, and if there was some aggregation of soma, it stayed as bipolar Neurons.
A

Primitive Agnatha:
Lampreys.
Hagfish: Convergent Spinal Roots in trunk only.

Jawless Vertebrates.

118
Q

What Agnathans have Converged Spinal Roots in the the Trunk?

A

Hagfish.
Most Agnatha do not have Converged Spinal Roots.

119
Q

What Superclass has converged Spinal Roots?

A

Gnathostomata.

Jawed Vertebrates. (Opposite Agnatha.)

120
Q

What are Occipitospinal Nerves?
What Classes of Vertebrates?
Where are they found?

A
  • Primitive Nerves which have Primarily Efferent functions in the Hypobranchial musculature, Lack Dorsal Roots.
  • Found in Amphibians and Fish.
  • Arise between the last pair of cranial nerves and the first pair of spinal nerves (Occipital Region).

Not Seen in Amniotes.

121
Q

What Cranial Nerves May have been derived from the Occipitospinal Nerves?

A

CN XI&XII.
Both Lack Dorsal Roots becuase they are Efferent Nerves.

No Afferent, No need to attach to Dorsal Roots of the spinal cord.

122
Q

What superclass has True metamerism where a single pair of Spinal Nerves will innervate each segment of the body?

A

Gnathostomata.
(Since Agnatha doesn’t even have true vertebra, they don’t have true metamerism.)

123
Q

After the convergence of the Dorsal and Ventral roots outside of the Spinal Cord, What does this split into?
What info do they carry?

A

Dorsal and Ventral Rami/ Ramuses.
They both carry Afferent and Efferent Nerves.

124
Q

What does the Dorsal Ramus Lead to?

A

Innervates Expaxial Muscles & Dorsal Integument with both Efferent & Afferent Nerves.

125
Q

What does the Ventral Ramus lead to?

A

Innervates Ventral body and Lateral body wall with both Efferent & Afferent Nerves.

126
Q

What does the Ventral Ramus Give rise to in the Thoracic and Lumbar regions?

A

White and Gray Ramus Communicans.
Allow for communication between Spinal Nerves and Sympathetic Ganglia.

Sympathetic: “Fight or Flight” Response.

127
Q

What is the function of the White Ramus Commincans and The Gray Ramus Communicans?

A

White: Brings info to the Ganglion.
Gray: Carries info out of the Ganglion.

128
Q

What do the Ventral Rami give rise to?

A

Nerve plexuses which innervate the limbs.

129
Q

What is a Nerve Plexus?

A

A network of Intersecting Nerves which will innervate specific Body Regions.

130
Q

What are the 4 Nerve Plexuses which Originate from the Ventral Rami?

A
  • Brachial Plexus.
  • Cervical Plexus.
  • Lumbar Plexus
  • Sacral Plexus.
    (Lumbar and Sacral may be grouped as 1).

Vertebrates may not have all 4…

131
Q

In all Vertebrates the Cranial Expansion of the Neural tube gives rise to what 3 Vesicles?
What basic part of the brain do they correspond to?

A
  1. Prosencephalon: Forebrain.
  2. Mesencephalon: Midbrain.
  3. Rhombencephalon: Hindbrain.
132
Q

What 2 regions does the Prosencephalon Give rise to?

A
  • Telencephalon: Cerebrum.
  • Diencephalon: Anterior Forebrain.

Together these make up the Forebrain.

133
Q

What are the 5 Principle Regions of the Brain?

A
  • Telencephalon: Cerebrum.
  • Diencephalon: “Inter Brain”
  • Mesencephalon: Midbrain.
  • Metencephalon: Cerebellum & Pons.
  • Myelencephalon: Medulla Oblongata.
134
Q

What two regions does the Rhombencephalon Give rise to?
What part of the brain do they become?

A
  • Metaencephalon: Cerebellum & Pons.
  • Myelencephalon: Medulla Oblongata.
135
Q

What are Ventricles of the brain?
What are they Filled with?

A

Hollow Spaces of the Brain filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid.

Lined by Ependymal Cells.

136
Q

What is the Central Canal of the Spinal Cord Filled with?

A

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF).

137
Q

What are the 4 ventricles of the Brain?

A
  • Lateral Ventricles (1&2).
  • 3rd Ventrical.
  • 4th Ventrical.
138
Q

Brain Ventricles.

139
Q

What is the thin median between the anterior portions of the Lateral Ventricles?

A

Septum Pellucidum.

140
Q

What are the 3 horns of the Lateral Ventricles?

141
Q

Which of the Principle Regions houses the Lateral Ventricles?

A

Telencephalon.

142
Q

Which of the Principle Regions houses the 3rd Ventricle?

A

Diencephalon.

143
Q

What part of the brain directly connects to the spinal cord?

A

Medulla Oblongata.

Dog Brain.

144
Q

What is Decussation of the pyramids of the medulla oblongata?

A

This is where the pyramids meet on the lower half of the medulla oblongata and cross over to opposite sides.

145
Q

What are the fibers tracts which connect the Cerebellum to Medulla Oblongata Called?

A

Inferior Cerebellar Peduncles.

146
Q

What are Olives of the Medulla Oblongata?

A

A Relay Station for info travelling to the Cerebellum.
Contains: Inferior Olivary Nucleus: a Wavy Gray Matter Structure.

Proprioceptive Info.

147
Q

The Medulla Oblongata houses Reticular Formations that exert control over what 4 autonomic Functions?

A
  • Cardiac.
  • Vasomotor.
  • Respiratory.
  • Hypothalamus Pathways.
148
Q

What are the two Cerebellar Hemispheres Connected by?

A

The Vermis.
(Central Region.)

149
Q

What are the 3 layers of the Cerebellum in Amniotes?

A

Outermost.
* Cerebellar Cortex: Has Folds/ Smoothness of movement.
* Cerebellar White Matter: Axons.
* Deep Cerebellar Nuclei: soma.
Innermost.

150
Q

What are the 3 Cerebellar Peduncles?

A
  • Superior: Connect to Midbrain.
  • Middle: Connect to Pons.
  • Inferior: Connect to Medulla Oblongata & Spinal Cord.
151
Q

What does it mean that the Cerebellum is ipsilateral and the Cerebrum is not?

A

Cerebellum: Left Side Controls Left side.
Cerebrum: Left Side controls Right Side. (Opposite due to to decussation.)

Ipsilateral: Belonging to the Same Side.
Decussation: Crossing over of nerve fibers to opposite sides.

152
Q

What is the Main Function of the Cerebellum?

A

Cooridinates Movement, Balance, Motor control.

153
Q

What is Located between the Diencephalon and the Pons?

A

The Midbrain.

154
Q

What three structures make up the brain stem?

A
  • Midbrain.
  • Pons.
  • Medullar Oblongata.
155
Q

How is the Midbrain Divided?

A

Divided into a roof and floor by the Cerebral aqueduct.
Roof: Tectum.
Floor: Tegmentum.

156
Q

What are the Roof and Floor of the midbrain Composed of?

A
  • Roof/ Tectum: 4 Clusters of Nuclei: Corporaquadrigemina (Two groupings of Nuclei: Superior and Inferior Colliculi.)
  • Floor/ Tegmentum: Cerebral Pedicles which contain fibers of Pyramidal tract.
157
Q

What is the Corporaquadrigemina?
Groups?

A

4 Clusters of Nuclei within the Tectum.
Two groupings:
* Superior Colliculi: Visual Reflexes.
* Inferior Colliculi: Auditory Reflexes.

158
Q

What are the 3 Structures of the Diencephalon?

A
  • Epithalamus.
  • Thalamus.
  • Hypothalamus.

Primarily Gray Matter.

159
Q

What is the function of the Thalamus to the brain?

A

Serves as a relay center between the cerebrum and the rest of the nervous system.

160
Q

What are the nuclei of the Thalamus called?

A

~12 Major Relay Nuclei.

161
Q

What structure makes up most of the Diencephalon?

A

The Thalamus.

162
Q

What structure makes up the inferior Diencephalon?

A

Hypothalamus.

163
Q

What is the main funtion of the Hypothalamus?

A

Main Control Visceral Center of the Body.

Also has 12 Major Nuclei.

164
Q

What are the 6 functions of the Hypothalamus?

A
  • ANS Control.
  • Emotional Response.
  • Temp Regulation.
  • Monitors Hunger & Thirst.
  • Circadian Rhythms.
  • Control Endrocrine System
165
Q

What Structure makes up the Dorsal-most portion of the Diencephalon?

A

The Epithalamus.

166
Q

What is the Epithalamus Composed of?

A

Tiny group of nuclei and Pineal Gland.

167
Q

What is the Pineal Gland?

A
  • Dorsal-most part of the diencephalon.
  • Secretes Serotonin & Melatonin.
168
Q

What extends anteriorly from each Cerebral Hemisphere?
What Princicle Region is the cerebrum?

A

Olfactory Bulb and Tract.
Cerebrum: Telencephalon Region.

Cat.

169
Q

What are the two sections of the Cerebrum in Fish?

A
  • Pallium: Primitive Sensory Area.
  • Globus Pallidus: Sends motor output from Pallium input.

Lamprey.

170
Q

Which Class of Vertebrate will have a very reduced Pallium and Globus Pallidus, and more developed Cerebral Nuclei?

A

Amphibians.
The cerebral Nuclei will control motor movement of appendicular somatic muscles.

Somatic: Outer Body/ Skeletal Muscles.

171
Q

Which Class of Vertebrate developed the Dorsal Ventricular Ridge which contributed to larger cerebrum, and has a Striatum?

A

Reptiles.

Reptiles are amniotes.

172
Q

What are the Globus Pallidus and Subpallium Nuclei reffered to as?

A

Striatum.
(Has a striated Appearance.)

Amniotes.

173
Q

Which Class of Vertebrate has a Dorsal Ventricular Ridge, a Striatum, a New layer of Neurons added on top of the dorsal Ridge?
What is this new Ridge Called?

A

Avians.
Avian Ridge.

174
Q

What is the outer Layer of the Cerebrum Called?
What type of Matter?

A

The Cerebral Cortex: Gray Matter.

Gray Matter is mostly perikaryons.

175
Q

What is the Inner layer of the Cerebral Cortex Called?
Type of Matter?

A

Internal Capsule: White Matter.

White Matter is Mostly Myelinated Axons.

176
Q

What are the 3 functional fiber classes that runs throughout the Internal Capsule of the Cerebral Cortex?

A
  • Commissural Fibers: Connect the Cerebral Hemispheres.
  • Association Fibers: Connect Portions of the same Hemisphere.
  • Projection Fibers: Connect the Cerebral Cortex to the rest of the CNS.
177
Q

What are the clusters of Gray Matter within the White Matter Internal Capsule of the Cerebral Cortex Called?

A

Basal Ganglia/ Basal Nuclei/ Cerebral Nuclei.

178
Q

What are Cerebral Nuclei?

A

Clusters of Gray Matter in the White Matter Internal Capsule.
Migrated from the outer Cerebral Cortex during development.

179
Q

What are the 3 Cerebral Nuclei part of the Mammalian Striatum?

A
  • Caudate Nucleus.
  • Putamen.
  • Amygdaloid Nucleus.
180
Q

which Vertebrate Class?

  • Functionally Replaced Globus Pallidum.
  • Olfactory Portion of the Pallium remains as the Hippocampus.
  • Rest of Pallium is lost.
181
Q

What Arteries Carry Blood to the brain?

A

Internal Carotids.
Supplies Cerebrum.

182
Q

What is the Basilar Artery?

A

A Joining of vertebral arteries on the under side of the brain. Occurs in some Mammals, Birds, & Many Reptiles.
Supplies Brain Stem.

183
Q

What type of Arteries Connect Basilar and Carotid Arteries?

A

Communicating Arteries.
In Some Vertebrates This will form a Circle of Willis at the base of the brain.

184
Q

What is the circle of Willis?

A

A joining of arteries which circles the Base of the Diencephalon.

185
Q

Venous Drainage from the Brain?

A

Drained by Venous Sinus’s and into the Jugular Veins.

Superior Sagittal Sinus is the Large Vein in Mammals.

186
Q

What is the capillary bed responsible for producing CSF?
How?

A

Choroid Capillary bed. The Capillaries are discontinuous allowing for increased permeability of water and ions from the blood to form CSF.

Discontinuous: Larger Gaps/ Fenestrations between Endothelial Cells making up the vessel.

187
Q

Where is the Choroid Plexus Located?

A

In Mammals it is located in the 3rd and 4th ventricles.

188
Q

How is CSF Drained?

A

By the Venous system of the brain.

189
Q

Where are the Perikarya of most Cranial Nerves Located?

A

Brain Stem.

190
Q

What is Cranial Nerve 0?

A

Nerve which runs along the Olfactory Tract & Innervates Nasal Mucosa. Sensory, Involved with detection of Pheromones.

191
Q

Why is there a Cranial Nerve 0?
What Superclass Has it?

A

Cranial Nerve 0 was Discovered post CN1-12. It is the most anterior nerve so had to be 0.
Found in all Gnathostomata.

Gnathostomata: Super Class of Jawed Vertebrates.

192
Q

CN I?
Type?
Arises from?

A

Olfactory Nerve: Afferent.
Arises from Forebrain.

193
Q

CN VN?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Vomeronasal Nerve.
  • Afferent.
  • Arises from Forebrain.
    Chemoreceptive: Likely Senses Pheromones.
    Vomeronasal Organ, Accessory Olfactory Bulb.
194
Q

CN II?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Optic Nerve.
  • Afferent.
  • Arises from Forebrain.
195
Q

CN III?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Oculomotor Nerve.
  • Efferent.
  • Arises From Midbrain.

Controls 4 of the 6 Pairs of Extrinsic Oculomotor Muscles.

196
Q

CN IV?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Trochlear Nerve.
  • Efferent.
  • Arises From Midbrain.

Responsible for one pair of Oculomotor Muscles.

197
Q

CN V?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Trigeminal Nerve.
  • Afferent & Efferent.
  • Arises from Pons.

Sensory info of Cutaneous Sensation of head.
& Motor output to Mastication Muscles.

198
Q

CN VI?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Abducens Nerve.
  • Efferent.
  • Arises from the Pons.

Controls one pair of Exstrinsic Oculomotor Muscles.

199
Q

CN VII?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Facial Nerve.
  • Afferent & Efferent.
  • Arises from Pons.

Some Taste Sensory.
Motor output to muscles of facial expression.

200
Q

CN VIII?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Vestibulocochlear Nerve.
  • Afferent.
  • Arises from Medulla Oblongata.

Auditory and Equilibrium sense from internal ear.

201
Q

CN IX?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Glossopharyngeal Nerve.
  • Afferent & Efferent.
  • Arises from Medulla Oblongata.

Some Taste, Sensation of Tongue and Pharynx.
Motor Output to Tongue and Pharynx.

202
Q

CN X?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Vagus Nerve.
  • Afferent & Efferent.
  • Arises from Medulla Oblongata.

Parasympathetic nerve (Part of ANS.)
Innervates many Structures Throughout the body.

203
Q

CN XI?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Accessory Nerve.
  • Efferent.
  • Arises From Medulla Oblongata.

Accessory to Vagus Nerve in Head & Neck.
Only Found in Tetrapods.

204
Q

CN XII?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Hypoglossal Nerve.
  • Efferent.
  • Arises from Medulla Oblongata.

Innervation of Tongue Muscles.
Found only in Tetrapods.

205
Q

CN E?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Epiphyseal Complex.
  • Afferent.
  • Arises From Forebrain.
    Sensory Input from Pineal Gland or Parietal Eye.
    Only Present in some Fish, Amphibians & Reptiles.

EX: Tuataras (Still not Living.)

206
Q

What is the Optic Chiasma?

A

Point where the pair of CN2 Crosses over under the Diencephalon.
This is a Decussation Point.

207
Q

Mammal Vs Non-Mammals Difference in Decussation?

A
  • In Non-Mammals There is Total Decussation of the optic Nerves.
  • In Mammals only the Medial Eye Field Fiber half Decussate while the Lateral Eye Field Fibers do not.

Decussation: When Bilateral Nerve Fibers Swap Sides.

208
Q

CN P?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Profundus Nerve.
  • Afferent.
  • Arises from the Pons.
    Found only in Primitive Vertebrates, Cutaneous Sensation of Head.

Trigeminal Also Arises from Pons, Both can be present and they are still 2 different nerves.

209
Q

CN ALL?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Anterior Lateral Line Nerve.
  • Afferent.
  • Arises from Diencephalon.

Has 3 branches, which pick up Sensory input from the anterior portion of Lateral line, Only present in Fish & Aquatic Amphibians.

210
Q

CN PLL?
Type?
Arises from?

A
  • Posterior Lateral Line Nerve.
  • Afferent.
  • Arises from Diencephalon.

Has 3 branches, which pick up Sensory input from the Posterior Portion of Lateral line, Only present in Fish & Aquatic Amphibians.

211
Q

What does the ANS Control?

A

Autnomic Nervous System Controls Visceral Organ Musculature & Glands.

Splits into Sympathic: “Fight ot Flight” & Parasympathetic: “Rest & Digest”

212
Q

What is the two neuron system the ANS uses?

A

It uses pre and post ganglionic Nerves.
Post Panglionic: Usually Not Myelinated.

213
Q

What two Neurotransmitters does the Sympathetic Nervous system usually use?

A

“Fight or Flight”
* Epinephrine: affects Heart More.
* Norepinephrine affects Vasculature More.

214
Q

What are the nerve cells of the Sympathetic Nervous system which use Epinephrine or Norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter to effector organs directly Referred to as?

A

Adrenergic.

Sympathetic: “Fight ot Flight”.

215
Q

What Neurotransmitter does the Parasympathetic Nervous System Usually use?

A

“Rest & Digest”
Acetylcholine.

216
Q

What are the nerve cells of the Parasympathetic Nervous system which use Acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter to effector organs directly Referred to as?

A

Cholinergic.

Parasympathetic: “Rest & Digest.”

217
Q

Where does the Origin Arise from of the Sympathetic Nervous system?

A

Thoracolumbar.

218
Q

What are 3 type of ganglia of the Sympathetic Nervous System?

A
  • Chain Ganglia: Paired Structures Parallel to Vertebral Column. Linked by Nerve Trunks, Forms Sympathetic trunk.
  • Prevertebral Ganglia: Single Structures Ventral to the Spinal Column.
  • Adrenal Medulla: Central Portion of Adrenal Gland.
219
Q

Where does the Origin Arise from of the Parasympathetic Nervous system?

A

From cranial Nerves and Sacral Nerves.
Craniosacral Origins.

220
Q

Where are the Parasympathetic Ganglia usually Located?

A

On or within the Target Organ.

Myenteric Plexus, submucosal Plexus.

221
Q

Ch 9 Complete!!

Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy. (6 decks)

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