Motivation and Emotion Flashcards
________________ is the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.
Motivation
What are the two basic types of motivation?
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
_____________ ______________ is a type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person.
Extrinsic motivation
________________ _______________ is a type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.
Intrinsic motivation
What are the two early approaches to understanding motivation?
Instincts and the Evolutionary Approach & Drive-Reduction Theory
The _________________ __________________ in understanding motivation focuses on the biologically determined and innate patterns of behaviour which are called instincts.
For example, the human instinct to reproduce is responsible for sexual behaviour, and the human instinct for territorial protection may be related to aggressive behaviour.
evolutionary approach
The _________________ __________________ in understanding motivation established that some human behaviour is controlled by hereditary factors.
It mostly faded away as they could only describe human behaviour but could not explain it.
evolutionary approach
The _____________-_____________ theory is an approach to motivation that assumes behaviour arises from internal drives to push the organism to satisfy physiological needs and reduce tension and arousal.
Drive-reduction theory
What is a ‘need’ defined as in the drive-reduction theory?
A need is a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism.
The psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfil the need and reduce the tension is defined as a ___________ in the drive-reduction theory.
drive
What are the two categories of drives in the drive-reduction theory?
Primary and secondary drives.
What are primary drives in the drive-reduction theory?
Primary drives are drives that involves biological or survival needs of the body such as hunger and thirst.
_____________ drives are drives that are learnt through experience or conditioning, such as money or social approval.
Acquired/secondary
___________________ is the tendency of the body maintaining a constant and steady internal environment.
Homeostasis
In the drive-reduction theory, when there is a primary drive need, the body is in a state of imbalance, this stimulates or drives behaviour to bring the body back into balance. This is linked to the concept of ___________________
homeostasis
David McClelland’s human motivation theory describes how people are driven by three main psychological needs: ________________, _________________ and ______________.
achievement, affiliation and power
What is the need for affiliation (nAff) in David McClelland’s human motivation theory?
The need to be liked by others and to be held in high regard by those around them.
What is the need for power (nPow) in David McClelland’s human motivation theory?
The need to have control over, have an influence over or make an impact on other people. Status and prestige are important in this need.
What is the need for achievement (nAch) in David McClelland’s human motivation theory?
The need or strong desire in self-improving and attaining goals, not only realistic ones but also challenging ones.
A person who is a good team player has a possibility of being high in which need in David McClelland’s human motivation theory?
Need for affiliation.
A person who places importance in buying expensive cars and living in a bungalow has possibility of being high in which need in David McClelland’s human motivation theory?
Need for power.
A person who is very focused in reaching career goals has a possibility of being high in which need in David McClelland’s human motivation theory?
Need for achievement.
In Carol Dweck’s ____________-____________ of motivation, she proposes that the need for achievement is closely linked to personality factors, including a person’s view of how self (beliefs a person holds about their own abilities and relationships with others) can affect their perception of the success or failure of their actions.
self-theory
What is an internal locus of control?
The assumption that an individual has control over what happens in their lives.
What is an external locus of control?
The assumption that their lives are controlled by external factors such as powerful others, luck, or fate.
What are people with an internal locus of control more likely to believe about intelligence?
They tend to think intelligence is changeable and can be shaped by experiences and effort in small increases, or increments.
What are people with an external locus of control more likely to believe about intelligence?
They tend to think intelligence is fixed and unchangeable.
A _____________ motive is a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.
stimulus
Based on the ___________ theory, people are said to have an optimal level of tension that is best or ideal for them which they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation.
arousal
What is considered the optimal level of arousal in arousal theory?
Many arousal theorists believe that the optimal level of arousal for most people under normal circumstances is somewhere in the middle.
A person who needs more arousal is called a ____________ ___________. These people seem to need more complex and varied sensory experiences compared to other people.
sensation seeker
The _____________ _____________ describes behaviour in terms of the external stimulus and its rewarding properties. The rewarding properties exist independently of any need or level of arousal and can cause people to act only upon the _____________.
incentive approach, incentive
_____________ are things that attract or lure people into action.
Incentives
The ________________ ______________ is where intrinsic motivation is diminished or extinguished after extrinsic rewards are given.
overjustification effect
In Abraham Maslow’s ________________ _____________ _____________ theory he proposed several levels or hierarchies of needs a person must strive to meet before achieving the highest level of personality fulfilment.
hierarchy of needs
From the bottom to the top, what are the hierarchy of needs based on Abraham Maslow’s theory?
Physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualisation.
What are deficiency needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Needs that when not met, motivation would subsequently decrease.
What are growth needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Needs that when met will increase motivation.
What are the needs in Maslow’s hierarchy which are grouped as deficiency needs?
Physiological, safety, belongingness and love, and esteem needs.
What is self-transcendence?
It is to strive for meaning and purpose beyond one’s own needs. This may lead to a person sacrificing their own needs to improve the needs of others.
What is self-actualisation?
An ongoing lifelong process that only a small proportion of people can achieve this state of full human potential.
Abraham Maslow described times in a person’s life during which self-actualisation is temporarily achieved as ____________ _____________.
peak experiences
What are physiological needs based on Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Needs such as food, water, warmth, and rest.
According to Abraham Maslow, the process of growth and self-actualisation is striving to make peak experiences continuously. Is the previous statement true?
True
In a revised version of Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, there are 2 added needs between esteem needs and self-actualisation, what are the 2 new needs?
Cognitive and aesthetic needs.
What are cognitive needs?
The need to know, understand, and explore.
What are aesthetic needs?
The need to appreciate beauty, order, and symmetry.
In the _____________-_____________ theory developed by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci, there are three inborn and universal needs which help people gain a complete sense of self and whole, healthy relationships with others.
self-determination
What are the three needs in Richard Ryan & Edward Deci’s self-determination theory?
Autonomy (The need to be in control of own behaviour and goals)
Competence (The need to be able to master the challenging tasks of one’s life)
Relatedness (The need to feel a sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in relationships with others)
In the ____________-_____________ theory, when one satisfies all their personal needs. They would gain satisfaction that would foster healthy psychological growth and increase the individual’s intrinsic motivation, focusing more on actions that are performed because they are internally rewarding or satisfying.
self-determination
Are needs universal? Or do they vary across individuals?
They vary across individuals due to cultural influences.
What are the two common categories of cultures?
Individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
In _______________ cultures such as North America or Western Europe, personal achievement is highly valued; it is usually regarded as a product of personal talent, determination, intelligence and attitude.
This perspective often minimises the influence of external factors such as the support of family or community, consequently, individuals in this culture are generally motivated to act based on personal motives or attitudes.
individualistic
In _____________ cultures such as Latin America, Asia or Africa, they tend to prioritise the family, community or the country over individual interests.
This perspective usually leads to people driven to behave in ways that would benefit the entire group.
If an individual of a group fails, they may feel that they are not meeting the expectations of the group.
collectivistic
Is an individualistic or a collectivistic culture more superior?
Neither of these perspectives are inherently superior, globalisation and the merging of cultures have made it so that individuals may have both individualistic and collectivistic motivations.
___________ can be defined as the “feeling” aspect of consciousness.
Emotion
What are the 3 main components of emotion?
Physical/physiological arousal, behavioural expression (that reveals the feeling to the outside world), and a cognitive interpretation/appraisal or inner awareness of the feeling.
What is the difference between mood and emotion?
Mood is a long-lasting emotional state, emotions are temporary and short-lived, usually an immediate response to a specific or situation.
Is there any relationship between emotions and motivations?
Emotions can motivate us to take action and conversely motivations can amplify emotions.
Are emotions innate or learnt?
Some emotions are innate, however most emotions are learnt.
What are some physiological changes or arousals that are created by the sympathetic nervous system when a person experiences an emotion?
Heart rate increases, breathing becomes more rapid, pupils dilate, and the mouth may become dry.
_______________ arousal encompasses neural, hormonal, visceral and muscular changes created by the sympathetic nervous system.
Physiological
The ____________ of the limbic system is associated with fear-related emotions and memories, pleasure-seeking behaviours and also in facial expressions of human emotions.
amygdala
How does emotional stimuli travel to the amygdala?
It consists of two routes, the subcortical route (or low road) and the cortical route (or high road).
The ____________ route (or ______ road) for emotional stimuli allows for quick responses to stimuli that are possibly dangerous, sometimes before we actually know what the stimuli are.
subcortical, low
The _____________ route (or ______ road) allows emotional awareness where it overrides the ___________ route and is able to take more conscious control of our emotional responses.
cortical, high, subcortical
What are the subcortical areas that are involved in emotional aspects?
Hypothalamus (Activates the sympathetic nervous system)
Thalamus (Relay station for sensory inputs)
Hippocampus (Integrates emotional experiences with perceptual processes like sight and sound)
What are the cortical areas that are involved in emotional aspects?
Frontal lobes (Involved in interpreting or appraisal of the emotions, left frontal lobe for positive, right frontal lobe for negative)
Anterior cingulate cortex & orbitofrontal cortex (Controls and regulates emotions)
_________________ ________________ or ______________ is when an element of emotion is interpreted into a subjective feeling by attaching meaning and by giving it a label such as: anger, fear, happiness, sadness and so on.
This labelling process is also called the _________ element, because the process is a matter of retrieving memories of previous similar experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion and coming up with a label.
Cognitive interpretation, appraisal, cognitive
Can labels of emotion differ based on individuals?
Yes they can, the labels are applied in part of a learned response influenced by language and culture. Labels may differ in people due to different cultural backgrounds.
The _______________ ______________ component of emotions encompasses facial expressions, body movements, and actions (vocal tones and gestures), that are all methods of showing our emotions to others.
behavioural expression
Charles Darwin theorised that emotions were a product of evolution and therefore, ___________.
No matter the culture, all human beings show the _______ facial expression because the facial muscles were evolved to communicate specific information to onlookers.
universal, same
What are the 7 universal emotions?
Joy/happiness, contempt, surprise, sadness, anger, fear and disgust.
____________ ____________ are learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings. These rules are usually learnt from our family or peers.
Some rules can dictate a social group or culture’s guidelines on the appropriate situations, context and methods for expressing emotions.
Display rules
When we experience emotions, we may experience the same physiological changes or arousal, such as increased heart rate or rapid breathing during both fear and also attraction. This may lead to _______________ _______________ _____________ where we could mistake the arousal to be due to attraction rather than fear.
The Dutton and Aron suspension bridge experiment is an example of this.
misattribution of arousal
Arousal and valence are the two _____________ of emotions.
dimensions
The ____________ dimension of emotion is defined as the intensity of an emotion.
arousal
The ____________ dimension of emotion is defined on whether the emotion is positive or negative.
valence
____________ valence of emotions, such as fear, can motivate us to avoid threatening situations, whereas _____________ valence of emotions can motivate us to approach a pleasant situation.
Negative, positive
What are the 8 primary emotions Robert Plutchik classified in his emotion wheel?
Joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger and anticipation.
What did Robert Plutchik theorised from an evolutionary standpoint regarding the 8 innate emotions?
Plutchik argued from an evolutionary standpoint that these 8 innate emotions serve as behavioural triggers with substantial survival benefits.
How did Robert Plutchik categorise the 8 emotions of his emotion wheel?
Plutchik categorised the 8 emotions into valency, the positive emotions are joy, trust, surprise and anticipation, whereas the negative emotions are fear, sadness, disgust and anger.
According to Robert Plutchik, were we able to experience the 8 different emotions simultaneously?
Yes, however Plutchik theorised that we could not experience opposing emotions simultaneously. He suggested that we are able to blend and mix non-opposite emotions as well as adjacent ones.
Plutchik also stated that we are able to experience emotions of varying intensity, aligning with the arousal dimension of emotion.
In the ____________-____________ theory of emotion, it was theorised that a stimulus produced a feeling of a particular emotion which led to a physical reaction and then to a behavioural one.
common-sense
In the ______________-_____________ theory of emotion, a stimulus produces a physiological reaction, which is the arousal of the “fight-or-flight” sympathetic nervous system, and produces bodily sensations, this physiological arousal is then interpreted as an emotion.
James-Lange
In the ______________-______________ theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to activity in the brain, which then sends signals to arouse the body and interpret the emotion at the same time.
Cannon-Bard
The ________________ __________________ __________________ suggests that when emotions are expressed freely on the face, the emotion itself intensifies.
A stimulus causes arousal and a facial expression, the facial expression then provides feedback to the brain about the emotion, the brain then interprets the emotion and may also intensify it.
facial feedback hypothesis
In the _______________-_____________ ______________ ______________ theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and the labelling of that arousal (based on the surrounding environment), which leads to the experience and labelling of the emotional reaction.
Schacter-Singer cognitive arousal
In the _______________ ______________-________________ theory of emotion, stimulus causes an immediate appraisal of the arousal experienced. The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response, which is then followed by the appropriate bodily response.
Lazarus cognitive-mediational theory
What are safety needs based on Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
The need to feel safe and secure, or out of danger
What are belongingness & love needs based on Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
The need to be with others, belong and be accepted
What are esteem needs based on Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
The need to be prestigious, competent and recognised
