Memory Flashcards
1
Q
Memory is an active system that receives _______________ _______________ and puts that it into a usable form, ________________ it as it stores it away, and then ____________ it from storage when necessary.
A
1) Sensory information
2) Organises
3) Retrieves
2
Q
What are the 3 processes involved in memory?
A
Encoding, storage and retrieval.
3
Q
Explain the encoding process of memory.
A
Set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems.
4
Q
Explain the storage process of memory and what is the period of time dependent on.
A
Holding onto information for a certain period of time.
The period of time is dependent on the system of memory used.
5
Q
Explain the retrieval process of memory.
A
Retrieving information that is in storage into a form that can be used.
6
Q
What are the 3 different models of memories used to explain how memory works?
A
Information-processing model, parallel distributed processing model and levels-of-processing model.
7
Q
Explain the information-processing model of memory.
A
Assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages (encoding, storage and retrieval).
8
Q
Explain the parallel distributed processing model of memory.
A
Model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.
Simultaneous processing allows people to retrieve many different aspects of a memory all at once, facilitating much faster reactions and decisions.
9
Q
Explain the levels-of-processing model of memory.
A
Assumes information that is more “deeply processed”, or processed according to its meaning rather than just sound or physical characteristics of the word or word would be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.
10
Q
What are the 3 types of memory systems proposed in the information-processing model of memory?
A
Sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
11
Q
What are the 5 types of sensory memory?
A
Iconic (visual), echoic (auditory), tactile (touch), gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell).
12
Q
What is the process of masking in the iconic sensory system?
A
It is when iconic memory is pushed out very quickly by new information.
13
Q
Explain the sensory memory system.
A
Information is encoded into sensory memory as neural messages in the nervous system.
As long as those neural messages are travelling through the system, people have a “memory” for that information that can be accessed if needed.
14
Q
What is short-term memory?
A
Short-term memory is the second memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used, usually lasting for about 30 seconds or possibly longer through maintenance rehearsal.
15
Q
What is sensory memory?
A
Sensory memory is the first system of memory, in which raw information from the senses is held for a very brief period of time.
16
Q
What is selective attention?
A
The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input.
Only stimulus that is important enough will make it past the bottleneck to be consciously analysed for meaning in short-term memory.
17
Q
What is inattentional blindness?
A
A failure to notice changes occurring in one’s visual field, apparently caused by narrowing the focus of one’s attention.
18
Q
What is change blindness?
A
Inability to detect salient changes in stimulus (even when paying attention).
19
Q
Explain what is working memory.
A
An active system that processes the information in short-term memory.
20
Q
What are the 3 interrelated systems in working memory?
A
Central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, and auditory action recorder/phonological loop.
21
Q
What is the central executive in working memory and what are its functions?
A
Controls and coordinates the other 2 systems (visuospatial sketchpad & auditory action recorder/phonological loop).
Interpreter for both visual and auditory information.
22
Q
What is the visuospatial sketchpad in working memory?
A
Ability to hold visual and spatial information.
23
Q
How is the visuospatial sketchpad in working memory typically measured?
A
Using a spatial span test, where a series of blocks light up and subject are asked to recall the lit blocks in order (forward span) or in reverse order (backwards span).
24
Q
What is the auditory action recorder/phonological loop in working memory?
A
Speech and sound-related component which holds verbal and auditory information.
25
How is the auditory action recorder/phonological loop in working memory typically measured?
Using a digit span test, where a series of numbers is read to subjects, who are then asked to recall the numbers in order (forwards span) or in reverse order (backward span).
26
What is an episodic buffer in working memory?
A temporary store that integrates information from the other components of working memory (CE, VS, AAR/PL) and maintains a sense of time, so that events occur in a continuing sequence.
27
What are the two types of rehearsal mechanisms used to improve both short-term memory and long-term memory?
Maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.
28
Explain the maintenance rehearsal mechanism.
Practice of saying information to be remembered over and over in one’s head to maintain it in STM.
Information will stay in the STM until rehearsal stops.
29
Explain the elaborative rehearsal mechanism.
Method of transferring information from STM to LTM by making the information meaningful in some way.
For example, using mnemonics.
30
Explain the method of chunking in working memory.
Information is organised into groups or “chunks”.
For example, for a phone number “96345225”, one might organise it into two chunks: “9634” & “5225”.
31
What is automatic encoding in long-term memory?
The tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding.
32
What is a flashbulb memory?
A form of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for a person remembering it.
33
Explain what is long-term memory.
A stage of memory, the system in which all information placed is to be kept more or less permanently.
34
What are the 2 types of long-term memory?
Declarative and non-declarative/procedural long-term memory.
35
What are procedural/non-declarative long-term memories?
Type of LTM for skills, procedures, habits and conditioned responses.
Memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behaviour.
36
What are declarative long-term memories?
Type of LTM that contains information that is conscious and known and has to be processed with attention.
37
What are the two types of declarative long-term memory?
Semantic memory and episodic memory.
38
What does semantic memory contain?
Contains general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned during education.
39
What does episodic memory contain?
Contains personal information not readily available to other, such as daily activities and events.
40
How is declarative memory organised?
It is organised in terms of related meanings and concepts.
41
What is the semantic network model of memory organisation?
It assumes memory is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, concepts that are related are stored physically closer to each other.
42
What are the 3 levels of categories in the semantic network model of memory organisation?
Superordinate-level (broad concepts, i.e. animal)
Basic-level (natural and appropriate to daily experience, i.e. bird or fish)
Subordinate-level (specific concepts, i.e. canary, pigeon, shark, salmon)
43
What are retrieval cues in memory and how does the amount of retrieval cues affect memory retrieval?
Stimuli used for remembering, it could be external or internal.
The more retrieval cues are stored, the easier the retrieval of that information will be.
44
What is priming?
Exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus without conscious awareness.
45
What is encoding specificity?
The tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological state) that is available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved.
46
What are the 2 main forms of encoding specificity?
Context-dependent learning/memories & state-dependent learning/memories.
47
Describe the encoding specificity: context-dependent learning/memories.
Refers to physical surroundings a person is in when they are learning specific information.
48
Describe the encoding specificity: state-dependent learning/memories.
Refers to the particular physiological or psychological state.
49
What are the 2 main types of retrieval processes of memories?
Recall and recognition.
50
Describe the recall retrieval process of memory.
Information to be retrieved is “pulled” from memory with very few external cues.
For example, fill-in-the-blanks, short answer questions, essays, free recall.
51
Describe the recognition retrieval process of memory.
Ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a image or fact stored in the memory.
For example, MCQ questions, true or false questions.
52
What are engrams or memory traces?
Physical changes in the brain that occur when a particular memory is formed.
53
What increases or decreases can an engram cause?
1. Number of neuronal receptor sites/synapses
2. Sensitivity of the synapses through repeated stimulation (long-term potentiation)
3. Structural changes in dendrites (more/less branches that connects with other neurons)
4. Changes in neuronal proteins
54
What are the two forms of severe loss of long-term memory or amnesia?
Retrograde and anterograde.
55
What is retrograde amnesia?
Loss of memory for events prior to the point of injury or brain trauma, or loss of memory for the past.
56
What is anterograde amnesia?
Loss of memories from the point of injury or brain trauma, or the inability to form new memories.
57
What is memory consolidation?
Refers to the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed.
Changes usually occur between the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex.
58
What is constructive processing of memories?
The retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised or influenced by newer information.
59
What is the misinformation effect in memory?
The tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself.
60
What is false memory syndrome?
The creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while under hypnosis.
61
What is adaptive forgetting?
The idea that being able to suppress information that we no longer need makes it easier to remember what we do need.
62
What is the Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve?
A graph used when describing the patterns of forgetting, which quickly occur within the first hour and then tapers off gradually.
63
What is the difference between massed practice and distributed/spaced practice?
Massed practice is when a person studies a complete body of information all at once, e.g. cramming.
Distributed/spaced practice is when you space a period of time between one's study sessions.
64
What is an encoding failure in memory and when does it usually occur?
Failure to process information into memory.
Usually occurs when not paying attention, hence the information would not get past sensory memory.
65
What is the memory trace decay theory?
The theory assumes that overtime, if the traces are not used, they may decay and eventually fade into nothing.
66
What are the two different types of interference from the interference theory of memory?
Proactive and retroactive interference.
67
What is proactive interference in the interference theory of memory?
Tendency of older information interfering with the learning or retrieval of newer information.
68
What is retroactive interference in the interference theory of memory?
Tendency of newer information interfering with the retrieval of older information.
69
What are the 5 different types of effects from the serial position effect on memory?
Primacy, recency, frequency/repetition, distinctiveness and chunking.
70
What is the serial position effect in memory?
Information at the beginning and at the end is more accurately remembered than information in the middle.
71
What is the primacy effect?
Tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body.
72
What is the recency effect?
Tendency to remember information at the end of a body.
73
What is misattribution of source in memory?
It is when memories are retrieved correctly, however are attributed to an incorrect source such as the wrong time, place or person.
74
Human memory consists of multiple systems that have the ability
to store information for periods of time that range from _______
to _______.
a. seconds, hours
b. minutes, decades
c. seconds, our lifetime
d. hours, our lifetime
c. seconds, our lifetime
75
Elinor met her best friend after a long time and talked a lot with her. After the meeting, she felt that she had more to talk about but could not recall anything at that point. Elinor’s problem is in the
memory process of
a. encoding.
b. storage.
c. retrieval.
d. perceiving.
c. retrieval.
76
Which model of memory suggests that memory processes occur throughout a neural network simultaneously?
a. parallel distributed processing model
b. levels-of-processing model
c. information-processing model
d. three-stage model
a. parallel distributed processing model
77
Research has demonstrated you can enhance your memory for a specific word if you think about its meaning, how it can be used, and by giving a personal example of its use.
This is best accounted
for by which model of memory?
a. parallel distributed processing model
b. levels-of-processing model
c. information-processing model
d. three-stage model
b. levels-of-processing model
78
_______ memories are said to linger in the mind for a few seconds,
allowing people the chance to keep up with the flow of conversations and remember what was just said.
a. Long-term
b. Iconic
c. Short-term
d. Echoic
d. Echoic
79
Information enters into short-term memory through a process known as _______.
a. recency effect
b. selective attention
c. primacy effect
d. repetition
b. selective attention
80
Of the following, which is the most similar to the concept of long-term memory?
a. a computer mouse
b. a computer monitor
c. a computer hard drive
d. a computer keyboard
c. a computer hard drive
81
Amanda keeps forgetting her new boss, Ms. Steele’s name. She tries to memorize it by thinking that her boss is as flexible and strong as steel. Amanda remembers the name by associating it with something that she already knows.
This transferring of information from short-term
memory to long-term memory is an example of what type of rehearsal?
a. maintenance
b. chunking
c. elaborative
d. semantic
c. elaborative
82
Brenda has been able to tie her shoes since she was 4. She now finds it difficult to explain to her baby brother how to tie his shoes, but she can easily demonstrate it for him. Brenda’s memory for
shoe tying is best characterized as a(n) _______ memory.
a. episodic
b. declarative (explicit)
c. semantic
d. nondeclarative (implicit)
d. nondeclarative (implicit)
83
When you take your final exam in your psychology class, what type of memory will you most certainly need to access to answer each question?
a. nondeclarative
b. semantic
c. episodic
d. working
b. semantic
84
What concept suggests that the best place to study for your psychology final to ensure good retrieval of concepts is your psychology classroom?
a. serial position effect
b. tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon
c. encoding specificity
d. automatic encoding
c. encoding specificity
85
Magdalena got an opportunity to sing at the annual day of her school. The song selected was long and challenging to remember.
Magdalena noticed that quite often she forgot lines from the
middle of the song, never the beginning or the end. This is an
example of:
a. tip-of-the-tongue effect.
b. flashbulb memory.
c. encoding specificity.
d. the serial position effect.
d. the serial position effect.
86
Multiple-choice test questions typically rely on ________, while
essay questions rely on ________.
a. recognition, recall
b. rehearsal, recall
c. relearning, rehearsing
d. recall, recognition
a. recognition, recall
87
Fiona was in bliss when her boyfriend had proposed to her. She can recall the details of the day like it happened yesterday. Which of
the following is false about such flashbulb memories?
a. These memories are formed due to the release of hormones.
b. Such types of memories, especially of crimes, are highly accurate.
c. These memories are highly vivid and exact.
d. Such types of memories are usually formed when a person experiences intense emotion.
b. Such types of memories, especially of crimes, are highly accurate.
88
In Loftus’s 1978 study, participants viewed a slide presentation of
an accident. Later, some of the participants were asked a question
about a yield sign when the actual slides contained pictures of a stop sign. When presented with this inaccurate information, how did these participants typically respond?
a. Many participants’ overall accuracy dropped when confronted
with conflicting information.
b. Most corrected Loftus and recalled seeing a stop sign.
c. Many began seeing both a stop sign and a yield sign.
d. Participants were confused, but only briefly, at which point their
accuracy of recalling the event returned.
a. Many participants’ overall accuracy dropped when confronted
with conflicting information.
89
A key component for any person to believe that a false event is in fact true is to make sure that the false information is:
a. introduced by a source perceived as trustworthy.
b. introduced as soon after the event as possible.
c. as plausible as possible.
d. introduced no sooner than 24 hours after the event but no later
than 15 days.
c. as plausible as possible.
90
Yuli learned a list of nonsense words as part of an experiment in her college. She did really well in the test which followed immediately, recalling all the words correctly. According to Ebbinghaus’ curve of forgetting, how much time would Yuli take to forget all
the words?
a. one month
b. one hour
c. nine hours
d. six days
a. one month
91
Nina was texting on her phone, while her mother narrated a list of things she had to get from the market. When Nina went to the market, she realized that she could not recall any of the items her
mother had mentioned. Nina’s failure in recalling was due to which
form of forgetting?
a. distraction
b. encoding failure
c. memory trace
d. interference theory
b. encoding failure
92
Victor moved to learning the ukulele after mastering the guitar. Now, whenever he plays his guitar, he keeps mixing its chords with the chord formations that he learned on the ukulele. His problem is most likely due to:
a. retroactive interference.
b. encoding failure.
c. memory trace.
d. proactive interference
a. retroactive interference.
93
Olga is trying to learn a new recipe for pasta but always fails to recall it as bits and pieces of her old recipe keep coming back to her mind, forcing her to look at the new recipe again. Olga’s problem is
most likely due to:
a. retroactive interference.
b. encoding failure.
c. decay theory.
d. proactive interference
d. proactive interference
94
Chantal is very afraid of clowns, no doubt because she was frightened by one when she was very young. Chantal’s memories of that fearful encounter are likely to be associated with the:
a. prefrontal cortex.
b. cerebellum.
c. amygdala.
d. posterior cingulate cortex
c. amygdala.
95
Henry Gustav Molaison (H.M.) suffered from profound anterograde
amnesia after his _________ were surgically removed in an attempt
to control his seizures.
a. frontal lobes
b. amygdalae
c. hippocampi
d. thalami
c. hippocampi
96
What type of amnesia do you have when you cannot remember things that happened before a traumatic accident?
a. infantile amnesia
b. anterograde amnesia
c. psychogenic amnesia
d. retrograde amnesia
d. retrograde amnesia
97
Which neurotransmitter is no longer readily produced in Alzheimer’s patients?
a. dopamine
b. acetylcholine
c. endorphins
d. GABA
b. acetylcholine
98
The steps to memory can best be described as follows:
a. sensing it, perceiving it, remembering it, forgetting it
b. finding it, using it, storing it, using it again
c. putting it in, keeping it in, getting it out
d. a series of passive data files
c. putting it in, keeping it in, getting it out
99
According to Sperling, what is the capacity of iconic memory?
a. Everything that can be perceived in a lifetime.
b. Everything that can be heard in 1 minute.
c. Everything that can be sensed in 1 second.
d. Everything that can be seen at one time.
d. Everything that can be seen at one time.
100
Which type of memory system best explains the “What?”
phenomenon?
a. echoic sensory system
b. iconic sensory system
c. short-term memory system
d. tactile sensory system
a. echoic sensory system
101
For information to travel from either the iconic or echoic sensory system to short-term memory, it must first be _______ and then encoded primarily into _______ form.
a. selectively attended to, visual
b. unconsciously chosen, auditory
c. selectively attended to, auditory
d. biologically chosen, visual
c. selectively attended to, auditory
102
Adam is meeting his to-be brother-in-law for the first time. During their meeting, Adam asks him about the company he works for but is unable to recall the name later when inquired by his wife.
What amount of time does it typically take before such information is lost
from short-term memory?
a. typically between 20 seconds and 30 minutes
b. usually no more than 3 seconds to 1/4 of a minute
c. approximately 1 hour to 1 day
d. typically between 12 and 30 seconds
d. typically between 12 and 30 seconds
103
Early studies of the capacity of short-term memory suggested that most people could remember approximately _______ bits of
information.
a. two
b. seven
c. three
d. ten
b. seven
104
You really like a dress at a store, which has a code no. of 12336.
You try to remember the code by associating it with the multiplication table of 12. 12 * 3 = 36 and, therefore, 12336 is the code.
This transferring of information from short-term memory to long-term memory is an example of:
a. chunking.
b. maintenance rehearsal.
c. elaborative rehearsal.
d. repetition.
c. elaborative rehearsal.
105
_______ memory includes what people can do or demonstrate,
whereas _______ memory is about what people know and can report.
a. Episodic, semantic
b. Declarative, nondeclarative
c. Semantic, nondeclarative
d. Nondeclarative, declarative
d. Nondeclarative, declarative
106
The semantic network model of memory suggests that the _______ nodes you must pass through to access information, the longer it will take for you to recall information.
a. bigger the
b. fewer
c. more
d. more complex the
c. more
107
Phineas walks out of his office and into the conference room. However, after he leaves his office, he forgets what he was coming into the conference room for.
According to the encoding specificity
hypothesis, what should Phineas do to regain his lost memory?
a. Phineas should return to his office to help him remember what he had forgotten.
b. Phineas should ask someone else, “What did I come in here for?”
c. Phineas should remain in the conference room and simply relax
so that his memory returns.
d. Phineas should consider seeing a doctor, since such memory loss can be a sign of mental illness.
a. Phineas should return to his office to help him remember what he had forgotten.
108
Which of the following is an example of a test using recognition?
a. short answer
b. true–false
c. essay
d. fill in the blanks
b. true-false
109
When creating a presentation, many public-speaking instructors will tell you to develop a strong opening or attention getter to your presentation as well as a good summary and finish.
What aspect of memory best explains these suggestions?
a. elaborative rehearsal theory
b. parallel distributed processing model of memory
c. chunking
d. serial position effect
d. serial position effect
110
Alex’s parents chose a name for him that starts with the first alphabet of the English language, as many schools, colleges, and companies
use alphabetical order to call candidates for interviews or presentations.
They believe that Alex would be the first one to be called for an interview, which would increase his chances of setting a good
impression.
This belief is in line with what element of memory?
a. the recency effect
b. situational specificity
c. the primacy effect
d. the tip-of-the-tongue experience
c. the primacy effect
111
Research by Elizabeth Loftus shows that eyewitness recognition is very prone to what psychologists call:
a. a flashbulb memory.
b. automatic encoding.
c. a false positive.
d. a recency effect.
c. a false positive.
112
The tendency of certain elements to enter long-term memory with little or no effort to encode and organize them is what defines:
a. automatic encoding.
b. encoding specificity.
c. flashbulb memories.
d. eidetic imagery.
a. automatic encoding.
113
The ability to remember where you were and what you were doing when the United States was attacked on September 11, 2001, is an example of:
a. encoding specificity hypothesis.
b. eyewitness testimony.
c. false-memory syndrome.
d. flashbulb memory
d. flashbulb memory
114
In Hermann Ebbinghaus’s classic study on memory and the forgetting curve, how long after learning the lists did most forgetting happen?
a. 5 hours
b. Forgetting started immediately.
c. 1 hour
d. 9 hours
c. 1 hour
115
You share text messages, images, videos, and emojis with your friends on social media, but you still cannot recall what the share
icon exactly looks like.
You aren’t sure if it’s an arrow facing left or right. What would best explain such an inability to recall this information?
a. encoding failure
b. retroactive interference
c. decay theory
d. proactive interference
a. encoding failure
116
Henry Gustav Molaison, widely known as H.M., was unable to form
new declarative memories. He suffered from what psychologists call
_______ amnesia.
a. retroactive
b. psychogenic
c. retrograde
d. anterograde
d. anterograde
117
Your English instructor has given you an assignment to write down your most favorite memory from when you were 12 months old. What might you tell him?
a. Students will probably not be able to recall events from such an
early age.
b. Memories from this time are exceptionally vivid because of the
exciting nature of childhood.
c. Students will not be able to recall such memories if they had yet
to develop the ability to talk by age 1.
d. Students’ memories are detailed but often inaccurate.
a. Students will probably not be able to recall events from such an
early age.
118
What is the mere exposure effect?
The more people experience or repeatedly is exposed to a stimulus, whether it is a song, a picture, or a person, the more they tend to like it.
119
What is the illusory truth effect?
The illusory truth effect, also known as the illusion of truth, describes how when we hear the same false information repeated again and again, we often come to believe it is true.
