Memory

Question 1

Memory is an active system that receives _______________ _______________ and puts that it into a usable form, ________________ it as it stores it away, and then ____________ it from storage when necessary.

Answer 1

1) Sensory information
2) Organises
3) Retrieves

Question 2

What are the 3 processes involved in memory?

Answer 2

Encoding, storage and retrieval.

Question 3

Explain the encoding process of memory.

Answer 3

Set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems.

Question 4

Explain the storage process of memory and what is the period of time dependent on.

Answer 4

Holding onto information for a certain period of time.

The period of time is dependent on the system of memory used.

Question 5

Explain the retrieval process of memory.

Answer 5

Retrieving information that is in storage into a form that can be used.

Question 6

What are the 3 different models of memories used to explain how memory works?

Answer 6

Information-processing model, parallel distributed processing model and levels-of-processing model.

Question 7

Explain the information-processing model of memory.

Answer 7

Assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages (encoding, storage and retrieval).

Question 8

Explain the parallel distributed processing model of memory.

Answer 8

Model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.

Simultaneous processing allows people to retrieve many different aspects of a memory all at once, facilitating much faster reactions and decisions.

Question 9

Explain the levels-of-processing model of memory.

Answer 9

Assumes information that is more “deeply processed”, or processed according to its meaning rather than just sound or physical characteristics of the word or word would be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.

Question 10

What are the 3 types of memory systems proposed in the information-processing model of memory?

Answer 10

Sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

Question 11

What are the 5 types of sensory memory?

Answer 11

Iconic (visual), echoic (auditory), tactile (touch), gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell).

Question 12

What is the process of masking in the iconic sensory system?

Answer 12

It is when iconic memory is pushed out very quickly by new information.

Question 13

Explain the sensory memory system.

Answer 13

Information is encoded into sensory memory as neural messages in the nervous system.

As long as those neural messages are travelling through the system, people have a “memory” for that information that can be accessed if needed.

Question 14

What is short-term memory?

Answer 14

Short-term memory is the second memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used, usually lasting for about 30 seconds or possibly longer through maintenance rehearsal.

Question 15

What is sensory memory?

Answer 15

Sensory memory is the first system of memory, in which raw information from the senses is held for a very brief period of time.

Question 16

What is selective attention?

Answer 16

The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input.

Only stimulus that is important enough will make it past the bottleneck to be consciously analysed for meaning in short-term memory.

Question 17

What is inattentional blindness?

Answer 17

A failure to notice changes occurring in one’s visual field, apparently caused by narrowing the focus of one’s attention.

Question 18

What is change blindness?

Answer 18

Inability to detect salient changes in stimulus (even when paying attention).

Question 19

Explain what is working memory.

Answer 19

An active system that processes the information in short-term memory.

Question 20

What are the 3 interrelated systems in working memory?

Answer 20

Central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, and auditory action recorder/phonological loop.

Question 21

What is the central executive in working memory and what are its functions?

Answer 21

Controls and coordinates the other 2 systems (visuospatial sketchpad & auditory action recorder/phonological loop).

Interpreter for both visual and auditory information.

Question 22

What is the visuospatial sketchpad in working memory?

Answer 22

Ability to hold visual and spatial information.

Question 23

How is the visuospatial sketchpad in working memory typically measured?

Answer 23

Using a spatial span test, where a series of blocks light up and subject are asked to recall the lit blocks in order (forward span) or in reverse order (backwards span).

Question 24

What is the auditory action recorder/phonological loop in working memory?

Answer 24

Speech and sound-related component which holds verbal and auditory information.

Question 25

How is the auditory action recorder/phonological loop in working memory typically measured?

Answer 25

Using a digit span test, where a series of numbers is read to subjects, who are then asked to recall the numbers in order (forwards span) or in reverse order (backward span).

Question 26

What is an episodic buffer in working memory?

Answer 26

A temporary store that integrates information from the other components of working memory (CE, VS, AAR/PL) and maintains a sense of time, so that events occur in a continuing sequence.

Question 27

What are the two types of rehearsal mechanisms used to improve both short-term memory and long-term memory?

Answer 27

Maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.

Question 28

Explain the maintenance rehearsal mechanism.

Answer 28

Practice of saying information to be remembered over and over in one’s head to maintain it in STM.

Information will stay in the STM until rehearsal stops.

Question 29

Explain the elaborative rehearsal mechanism.

Answer 29

Method of transferring information from STM to LTM by making the information meaningful in some way.

For example, using mnemonics.

Question 30

Explain the method of chunking in working memory.

Answer 30

Information is organised into groups or “chunks”.

For example, for a phone number “96345225”, one might organise it into two chunks: “9634” & “5225”.

Question 31

What is automatic encoding in long-term memory?

Answer 31

The tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding.

Question 32

What is a flashbulb memory?

Answer 32

A form of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for a person remembering it.

Question 33

Explain what is long-term memory.

Answer 33

A stage of memory, the system in which all information placed is to be kept more or less permanently.

Question 34

What are the 2 types of long-term memory?

Answer 34

Declarative and non-declarative/procedural long-term memory.

Question 35

What are procedural/non-declarative long-term memories?

Answer 35

Type of LTM for skills, procedures, habits and conditioned responses.

Memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behaviour.

Question 36

What are declarative long-term memories?

Answer 36

Type of LTM that contains information that is conscious and known and has to be processed with attention.

Question 37

What are the two types of declarative long-term memory?

Answer 37

Semantic memory and episodic memory.

Question 38

What does semantic memory contain?

Answer 38

Contains general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned during education.

Question 39

What does episodic memory contain?

Answer 39

Contains personal information not readily available to other, such as daily activities and events.

Question 40

How is declarative memory organised?

Answer 40

It is organised in terms of related meanings and concepts.

Question 41

What is the semantic network model of memory organisation?

Answer 41

It assumes memory is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, concepts that are related are stored physically closer to each other.

Question 42

What are the 3 levels of categories in the semantic network model of memory organisation?

Answer 42

Superordinate-level (broad concepts, i.e. animal)

Basic-level (natural and appropriate to daily experience, i.e. bird or fish)

Subordinate-level (specific concepts, i.e. canary, pigeon, shark, salmon)

Question 43

What are retrieval cues in memory and how does the amount of retrieval cues affect memory retrieval?

Answer 43

Stimuli used for remembering, it could be external or internal.

The more retrieval cues are stored, the easier the retrieval of that information will be.

Question 44

What is priming?

Answer 44

Exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus without conscious awareness.

Question 45

What is encoding specificity?

Answer 45

The tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological state) that is available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved.

Question 46

What are the 2 main forms of encoding specificity?

Answer 46

Context-dependent learning/memories & state-dependent learning/memories.

Question 47

Describe the encoding specificity: context-dependent learning/memories.

Answer 47

Refers to physical surroundings a person is in when they are learning specific information.

Question 48

Describe the encoding specificity: state-dependent learning/memories.

Answer 48

Refers to the particular physiological or psychological state.

Question 49

What are the 2 main types of retrieval processes of memories?

Answer 49

Recall and recognition.

Question 50

Describe the recall retrieval process of memory.

Answer 50

Information to be retrieved is “pulled” from memory with very few external cues.

For example, fill-in-the-blanks, short answer questions, essays, free recall.

Question 51

Describe the recognition retrieval process of memory.

Answer 51

Ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a image or fact stored in the memory.

For example, MCQ questions, true or false questions.

Question 52

What are engrams or memory traces?

Answer 52

Physical changes in the brain that occur when a particular memory is formed.

Question 53

What increases or decreases can an engram cause?

Answer 53

1. Number of neuronal receptor sites/synapses
2. Sensitivity of the synapses through repeated stimulation (long-term potentiation)
3. Structural changes in dendrites (more/less branches that connects with other neurons)
4. Changes in neuronal proteins

Question 54

What are the two forms of severe loss of long-term memory or amnesia?

Answer 54

Retrograde and anterograde.

Question 55

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 55

Loss of memory for events prior to the point of injury or brain trauma, or loss of memory for the past.

Question 56

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 56

Loss of memories from the point of injury or brain trauma, or the inability to form new memories.

Question 57

What is memory consolidation?

Answer 57

Refers to the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed.

Changes usually occur between the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex.

Question 58

What is constructive processing of memories?

Answer 58

The retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised or influenced by newer information.

Question 59

What is the misinformation effect in memory?

Answer 59

The tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself.

Question 60

What is false memory syndrome?

Answer 60

The creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while under hypnosis.

Question 61

What is adaptive forgetting?

Answer 61

The idea that being able to suppress information that we no longer need makes it easier to remember what we do need.

Question 62

What is the Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve?

Answer 62

A graph used when describing the patterns of forgetting, which quickly occur within the first hour and then tapers off gradually.

Question 63

What is the difference between massed practice and distributed/spaced practice?

Answer 63

Massed practice is when a person studies a complete body of information all at once, e.g. cramming.

Distributed/spaced practice is when you space a period of time between one’s study sessions.

Question 64

What is an encoding failure in memory and when does it usually occur?

Answer 64

Failure to process information into memory.

Usually occurs when not paying attention, hence the information would not get past sensory memory.

Question 65

What is the memory trace decay theory?

Answer 65

The theory assumes that overtime, if the traces are not used, they may decay and eventually fade into nothing.

Question 66

What are the two different types of interference from the interference theory of memory?

Answer 66

Proactive and retroactive interference.

Question 67

What is proactive interference in the interference theory of memory?

Answer 67

Tendency of older information interfering with the learning or retrieval of newer information.

Question 68

What is retroactive interference in the interference theory of memory?

Answer 68

Tendency of newer information interfering with the retrieval of older information.

Question 69

What are the 5 different types of effects from the serial position effect on memory?

Answer 69

Primacy, recency, frequency/repetition, distinctiveness and chunking.

Question 70

What is the serial position effect in memory?

Answer 70

Information at the beginning and at the end is more accurately remembered than information in the middle.

Question 71

What is the primacy effect?

Answer 71

Tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body.

Question 72

What is the recency effect?

Answer 72

Tendency to remember information at the end of a body.

Question 73

What is misattribution of source in memory?

Answer 73

It is when memories are retrieved correctly, however are attributed to an incorrect source such as the wrong time, place or person.

Question 74

Human memory consists of multiple systems that have the ability
to store information for periods of time that range from _______
to _______.

a. seconds, hours
b. minutes, decades
c. seconds, our lifetime
d. hours, our lifetime

Answer 74

c. seconds, our lifetime

Question 75

Elinor met her best friend after a long time and talked a lot with her. After the meeting, she felt that she had more to talk about but could not recall anything at that point. Elinor’s problem is in the
memory process of

a. encoding.
b. storage.
c. retrieval.
d. perceiving.

Answer 75

c. retrieval.

Question 76

Which model of memory suggests that memory processes occur throughout a neural network simultaneously?

a. parallel distributed processing model
b. levels-of-processing model
c. information-processing model
d. three-stage model

Answer 76

a. parallel distributed processing model

Question 77

Research has demonstrated you can enhance your memory for a specific word if you think about its meaning, how it can be used, and by giving a personal example of its use.

This is best accounted
for by which model of memory?

a. parallel distributed processing model
b. levels-of-processing model
c. information-processing model
d. three-stage model

Answer 77

b. levels-of-processing model

Question 78

_______ memories are said to linger in the mind for a few seconds,
allowing people the chance to keep up with the flow of conversations and remember what was just said.

a. Long-term
b. Iconic
c. Short-term
d. Echoic

Answer 78

d. Echoic

Question 79

Information enters into short-term memory through a process known as _______.

a. recency effect
b. selective attention
c. primacy effect
d. repetition

Answer 79

b. selective attention

Question 80

Of the following, which is the most similar to the concept of long-term memory?

a. a computer mouse
b. a computer monitor
c. a computer hard drive
d. a computer keyboard

Answer 80

c. a computer hard drive

Question 81

Amanda keeps forgetting her new boss, Ms. Steele’s name. She tries to memorize it by thinking that her boss is as flexible and strong as steel. Amanda remembers the name by associating it with something that she already knows.

This transferring of information from short-term
memory to long-term memory is an example of what type of rehearsal?

a. maintenance
b. chunking
c. elaborative
d. semantic

Answer 81

c. elaborative

Question 82

Brenda has been able to tie her shoes since she was 4. She now finds it difficult to explain to her baby brother how to tie his shoes, but she can easily demonstrate it for him. Brenda’s memory for
shoe tying is best characterized as a(n) _______ memory.

a. episodic
b. declarative (explicit)
c. semantic
d. nondeclarative (implicit)

Answer 82

d. nondeclarative (implicit)

Question 83

When you take your final exam in your psychology class, what type of memory will you most certainly need to access to answer each question?

a. nondeclarative
b. semantic
c. episodic
d. working

Answer 83

b. semantic

Question 84

What concept suggests that the best place to study for your psychology final to ensure good retrieval of concepts is your psychology classroom?

a. serial position effect
b. tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon
c. encoding specificity
d. automatic encoding

Answer 84

c. encoding specificity

Question 85

Magdalena got an opportunity to sing at the annual day of her school. The song selected was long and challenging to remember.

Magdalena noticed that quite often she forgot lines from the
middle of the song, never the beginning or the end. This is an
example of:

a. tip-of-the-tongue effect.
b. flashbulb memory.
c. encoding specificity.
d. the serial position effect.

Answer 85

d. the serial position effect.

Question 86

Multiple-choice test questions typically rely on ________, while
essay questions rely on ________.

a. recognition, recall
b. rehearsal, recall
c. relearning, rehearsing
d. recall, recognition

Answer 86

a. recognition, recall

Question 87

Fiona was in bliss when her boyfriend had proposed to her. She can recall the details of the day like it happened yesterday. Which of
the following is false about such flashbulb memories?

a. These memories are formed due to the release of hormones.
b. Such types of memories, especially of crimes, are highly accurate.
c. These memories are highly vivid and exact.
d. Such types of memories are usually formed when a person experiences intense emotion.

Answer 87

b. Such types of memories, especially of crimes, are highly accurate.

Question 88

In Loftus’s 1978 study, participants viewed a slide presentation of
an accident. Later, some of the participants were asked a question
about a yield sign when the actual slides contained pictures of a stop sign. When presented with this inaccurate information, how did these participants typically respond?

a. Many participants’ overall accuracy dropped when confronted
with conflicting information.
b. Most corrected Loftus and recalled seeing a stop sign.
c. Many began seeing both a stop sign and a yield sign.
d. Participants were confused, but only briefly, at which point their
accuracy of recalling the event returned.

Answer 88

a. Many participants’ overall accuracy dropped when confronted
with conflicting information.

Question 89

A key component for any person to believe that a false event is in fact true is to make sure that the false information is:

a. introduced by a source perceived as trustworthy.
b. introduced as soon after the event as possible.
c. as plausible as possible.
d. introduced no sooner than 24 hours after the event but no later
than 15 days.

Answer 89

c. as plausible as possible.

Question 90

Yuli learned a list of nonsense words as part of an experiment in her college. She did really well in the test which followed immediately, recalling all the words correctly. According to Ebbinghaus’ curve of forgetting, how much time would Yuli take to forget all
the words?

a. one month
b. one hour
c. nine hours
d. six days

Answer 90

a. one month

Question 91

Nina was texting on her phone, while her mother narrated a list of things she had to get from the market. When Nina went to the market, she realized that she could not recall any of the items her
mother had mentioned. Nina’s failure in recalling was due to which
form of forgetting?

a. distraction
b. encoding failure
c. memory trace
d. interference theory

Answer 91

b. encoding failure

Question 92

Victor moved to learning the ukulele after mastering the guitar. Now, whenever he plays his guitar, he keeps mixing its chords with the chord formations that he learned on the ukulele. His problem is most likely due to:

a. retroactive interference.
b. encoding failure.
c. memory trace.
d. proactive interference

Answer 92

a. retroactive interference.

Question 93

Olga is trying to learn a new recipe for pasta but always fails to recall it as bits and pieces of her old recipe keep coming back to her mind, forcing her to look at the new recipe again. Olga’s problem is
most likely due to:

a. retroactive interference.
b. encoding failure.
c. decay theory.
d. proactive interference

Answer 93

d. proactive interference

Question 94

Chantal is very afraid of clowns, no doubt because she was frightened by one when she was very young. Chantal’s memories of that fearful encounter are likely to be associated with the:

a. prefrontal cortex.
b. cerebellum.
c. amygdala.
d. posterior cingulate cortex

Answer 94

c. amygdala.

Question 95

Henry Gustav Molaison (H.M.) suffered from profound anterograde
amnesia after his _________ were surgically removed in an attempt
to control his seizures.

a. frontal lobes
b. amygdalae
c. hippocampi
d. thalami

Answer 95

c. hippocampi

Question 96

What type of amnesia do you have when you cannot remember things that happened before a traumatic accident?

a. infantile amnesia
b. anterograde amnesia
c. psychogenic amnesia
d. retrograde amnesia

Answer 96

d. retrograde amnesia

Question 97

Which neurotransmitter is no longer readily produced in Alzheimer’s patients?

a. dopamine
b. acetylcholine
c. endorphins
d. GABA

Answer 97

b. acetylcholine

Question 98

The steps to memory can best be described as follows:

a. sensing it, perceiving it, remembering it, forgetting it
b. finding it, using it, storing it, using it again
c. putting it in, keeping it in, getting it out
d. a series of passive data files

Answer 98

c. putting it in, keeping it in, getting it out

Question 99

According to Sperling, what is the capacity of iconic memory?

a. Everything that can be perceived in a lifetime.
b. Everything that can be heard in 1 minute.
c. Everything that can be sensed in 1 second.
d. Everything that can be seen at one time.

Answer 99

d. Everything that can be seen at one time.

Question 100

Which type of memory system best explains the “What?”
phenomenon?

a. echoic sensory system
b. iconic sensory system
c. short-term memory system
d. tactile sensory system

Answer 100

a. echoic sensory system

Question 101

For information to travel from either the iconic or echoic sensory system to short-term memory, it must first be _______ and then encoded primarily into _______ form.

a. selectively attended to, visual
b. unconsciously chosen, auditory
c. selectively attended to, auditory
d. biologically chosen, visual

Answer 101

c. selectively attended to, auditory

Question 102

Adam is meeting his to-be brother-in-law for the first time. During their meeting, Adam asks him about the company he works for but is unable to recall the name later when inquired by his wife.

What amount of time does it typically take before such information is lost
from short-term memory?

a. typically between 20 seconds and 30 minutes
b. usually no more than 3 seconds to 1/4 of a minute
c. approximately 1 hour to 1 day
d. typically between 12 and 30 seconds

Answer 102

d. typically between 12 and 30 seconds

Question 103

Early studies of the capacity of short-term memory suggested that most people could remember approximately _______ bits of
information.

a. two
b. seven
c. three
d. ten

Answer 103

b. seven

Question 104

You really like a dress at a store, which has a code no. of 12336.

You try to remember the code by associating it with the multiplication table of 12. 12 * 3 = 36 and, therefore, 12336 is the code.

This transferring of information from short-term memory to long-term memory is an example of:

a. chunking.
b. maintenance rehearsal.
c. elaborative rehearsal.
d. repetition.

Answer 104

c. elaborative rehearsal.

Question 105

_______ memory includes what people can do or demonstrate,
whereas _______ memory is about what people know and can report.

a. Episodic, semantic
b. Declarative, nondeclarative
c. Semantic, nondeclarative
d. Nondeclarative, declarative

Answer 105

d. Nondeclarative, declarative

Question 106

The semantic network model of memory suggests that the _______ nodes you must pass through to access information, the longer it will take for you to recall information.

a. bigger the
b. fewer
c. more
d. more complex the

Answer 106

c. more

Question 107

Phineas walks out of his office and into the conference room. However, after he leaves his office, he forgets what he was coming into the conference room for.

According to the encoding specificity
hypothesis, what should Phineas do to regain his lost memory?

a. Phineas should return to his office to help him remember what he had forgotten.
b. Phineas should ask someone else, “What did I come in here for?”
c. Phineas should remain in the conference room and simply relax
so that his memory returns.
d. Phineas should consider seeing a doctor, since such memory loss can be a sign of mental illness.

Answer 107

a. Phineas should return to his office to help him remember what he had forgotten.

Question 108

Which of the following is an example of a test using recognition?

a. short answer
b. true–false
c. essay
d. fill in the blanks

Answer 108

b. true-false

Question 109

When creating a presentation, many public-speaking instructors will tell you to develop a strong opening or attention getter to your presentation as well as a good summary and finish.

What aspect of memory best explains these suggestions?

a. elaborative rehearsal theory
b. parallel distributed processing model of memory
c. chunking
d. serial position effect

Answer 109

d. serial position effect

Question 110

Alex’s parents chose a name for him that starts with the first alphabet of the English language, as many schools, colleges, and companies
use alphabetical order to call candidates for interviews or presentations.

They believe that Alex would be the first one to be called for an interview, which would increase his chances of setting a good
impression.

This belief is in line with what element of memory?

a. the recency effect
b. situational specificity
c. the primacy effect
d. the tip-of-the-tongue experience

Answer 110

c. the primacy effect

Question 111

Research by Elizabeth Loftus shows that eyewitness recognition is very prone to what psychologists call:

a. a flashbulb memory.
b. automatic encoding.
c. a false positive.
d. a recency effect.

Answer 111

c. a false positive.

Question 112

The tendency of certain elements to enter long-term memory with little or no effort to encode and organize them is what defines:

a. automatic encoding.
b. encoding specificity.
c. flashbulb memories.
d. eidetic imagery.

Answer 112

a. automatic encoding.

Question 113

The ability to remember where you were and what you were doing when the United States was attacked on September 11, 2001, is an example of:

a. encoding specificity hypothesis.
b. eyewitness testimony.
c. false-memory syndrome.
d. flashbulb memory

Answer 113

d. flashbulb memory

Question 114

In Hermann Ebbinghaus’s classic study on memory and the forgetting curve, how long after learning the lists did most forgetting happen?

a. 5 hours
b. Forgetting started immediately.
c. 1 hour
d. 9 hours

Answer 114

c. 1 hour

Question 115

You share text messages, images, videos, and emojis with your friends on social media, but you still cannot recall what the share
icon exactly looks like.

You aren’t sure if it’s an arrow facing left or right. What would best explain such an inability to recall this information?

a. encoding failure
b. retroactive interference
c. decay theory
d. proactive interference

Answer 115

a. encoding failure

Question 116

Henry Gustav Molaison, widely known as H.M., was unable to form
new declarative memories. He suffered from what psychologists call
_______ amnesia.

a. retroactive
b. psychogenic
c. retrograde
d. anterograde

Answer 116

d. anterograde

Question 117

Your English instructor has given you an assignment to write down your most favorite memory from when you were 12 months old. What might you tell him?

a. Students will probably not be able to recall events from such an
early age.
b. Memories from this time are exceptionally vivid because of the
exciting nature of childhood.
c. Students will not be able to recall such memories if they had yet
to develop the ability to talk by age 1.
d. Students’ memories are detailed but often inaccurate.

Answer 117

a. Students will probably not be able to recall events from such an
early age.

Question 118

What is the mere exposure effect?

Answer 118

The more people experience or repeatedly is exposed to a stimulus, whether it is a song, a picture, or a person, the more they tend to like it.

Question 119

What is the illusory truth effect?

Answer 119

The illusory truth effect, also known as the illusion of truth, describes how when we hear the same false information repeated again and again, we often come to believe it is true.