Module Questions

Question 1

Describe the different approaches to the study of gross anatomy

Answer 1

Regional approach= studying the body in parts, like the upper limb, lower limb, foot, hand, etc. All of the structures in that region are studied collectively. Systemic approach= study the body in systems, like the muscular system, cardiovascular system, etc. All the organs that make up each system are studied collectively, without respect to the location inside the body.

Question 2

Define the anatomical position, the major planes of section, and the primary terms of direction used in anatomical descriptions

Answer 2

Anatomical position is the generally agreed on reference position of the body used to describe the location and movement of its parts. In this position, a person stands upright looking forward, with arms resting by their side, forearms supinated, and fingers extended. There are three major planes of section: Frontal, Sagittal, and Transverse. The sagittal plane divides the body into left and right sections and runs parallel with the sagittal suture. The frontal plane divides the body into front and back sections. This plane runs parallel with the coronal suture. The transverse plane divides the body into upper and lower sections. The primary terms of direction used in anatomical directions are superior, inferior, cranial, caudal, posterior, anterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal, superficial, and deep. Superior – refers to a structure closer to the head Inferior – refers to a structure closer to the feet Cranial – closer to the head, when referring to structures on the trunk Caudal – closer to the buttocks, when referring to structures on the trunk Posterior – a structure further toward the back of the body Anterior – structure further toward the front of the body Medial – structure closer to the midline of the body Lateral – refers to a structure farther away from the midline of the body Distal – structure further away from the trunk or body’s midline, used when referring to parts of limbs Proximal – designates a structure closer to the trunk, used when referring to parts of limbs Superficial – refers to a structure closer to the body’s surface Deep – refers to a structure deeper in the body

Question 3

Define the primary movements utilized in anatomical descriptions

Answer 3

Flexion - Bending movement that decreases the angle between body parts. Extension - Straightening movement that increases the angle between body parts. Abduction - Motion that pulls a structure away from the midline of the body. Adduction - Motion that pulls a structure toward the midline of the body. Internal rotation (medial rotation) - Rotates the structure inwards, towards the midline of the body. Eternal Rotation (lateral rotation) - Rotates the structure outwards, away from the midline of the body. Elevation - Movement in a superior direction. Depression - Movement in an inferior direction. Pronation - Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces posteriorly, or palm facing down. (for the foot its a combination of abduction, eversion, and dorsiflexion). Supination - Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces anteriorly, or palm facing up. (holding a cup of soup) (for the foot its a combination of adduction, inversion, and plantar flexion). Dorsiflexion - Extension of the entire foot superiorly. Planterflexion - Flexion of the entire foot inferiorly. Eversion - Movement of the sole of the foot away from the median plane. Inversion - Movement of the sole towards the median plane. Protrusion - The anterior movement of the jaw. Retrusion - The posterior movement of the jaw. Protraction - Anterior movement of the arms at the shoulders. Retraction - Posterior movement of the arms at the shoulders. Anterograde - Motion is in the normal direction of flow (motion within the body sucj as blood vessels or digestive system). Retrograde - Motion that is reversed from the normal direction of flow. Rotation - Motion that occurs when a part turns on its axis. Circumduction - The circular movement of a body part (ball and socket joint). Opposition - A motion involving a grasping of the thumb and fingers. Reposition - To release an object by spreading the fingers and thumb. Reciprocal motion of a joint- Alternating motion in opposing directions (elbow flexing and extending).

Question 4

Describe the levels of structural organization that make up the human body

Answer 4

Chemical level *Atoms combine to form molecules (H20, carbon compounds Cellular level *Cells are made up of molecules Tissue level *Tissues consist of similar types of cells (groups of cells) Organ level *Organs are made up of different types of tissues Organ system level *Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely Organismal level *The human organism is made up of many organ systems.

Question 5

List the eleven systems of the human body, the organs present in each, and their general functions

Answer 5

Skeletal Nervous Digestive Muscular Circulatory Respiratory Endocrine Reproductive Excretory (Urinary) Immune System (Lymphatic System) Integumentary System

Question 6

Skeletal

Answer 6

• supports, protects, and gives structure with bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons. Stores calcium and other minerals, forms blood cells (hemopoiesis)

Question 7

Nervous

Answer 7

• Brain, Spinal cord and Nerves; sends signals via electrical impulses to coordinate the body’s response to changes in its internal and external environment

Question 8

Digestive

Answer 8

• breaks down food and absorbs nutrients; digestion and processing food with salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines

Question 9

Muscular

Answer 9

• Skeletal Muscles and associated tendons; Provides movement, protection for other tissues, and generates heat to maintain body temp.

Question 10

Circulatory

Answer 10

• heart, blood, arteries, capillaries, and veins. The main roll of the circulatory system is to carry oxygen to the cell and carbon dioxide away. In addition, the circulatory system provides, water, nutrients, hormonal signals, and carries away waste.

Question 11

Respiratory

Answer 11

• system responsible for taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide using the organs used for breathing: the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli and diaphragm

Question 12

Endocrine

Answer 12

• chemical communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal body or pineal gland, pancreas, thyroid, parathyroids and adrenals, i.e., adrenal glands. Controls growth, development, metabolism and reproduction through the production and secretion of hormones

Question 13

Reproductive

Answer 13

• the sex organs for reproduction, such as F: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands and M: testes, epididymus vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, scrotum and penis.

Question 14

Excretory

Answer 14

• filtering and eliminating waste; kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and storage/excretion of urine.

Question 15

Immune

Answer 15

• Spleen, Thymus, Lymphatic vessels and nodes, tonsils. Defends against infection and disease and returns tissue fluids to blood stream

Question 16

Integumentary

Answer 16

• the organ system that forms a protective covering on the outside of the body: skin, hair, and nails. Protects against environmental hazards, helps regulate body temp, provides sensory information

Question 17

Describe the major body cavities, the organs they contain, and their associated linings

Answer 17

Dorsal body cavity contains the cranial and vertebral cavities: Cranial cavity- lies in the skull and encases the brain- lined by the 3 connective tissue layers: the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater Vertebral (spinal) canal- encloses the spinal cord- also lined by the 3 connective tissue layers: the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater Ventral body cavity contains Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavities: Thoracic cavity (including the pericardial cavity and two pleural cavities)- contains the heart and lungs Abdominal cavity-containing the stomach, liver, intestines, and spleen Pelvic cavity-containing some of the reproductive organs, the urinary bladder, and the distal colon The viscera (organs) within the thoracic and abdominal cavities as well as the walls of these cavities are lined with a serous membrane; the latter consists of a visceral layer (covering the viscera) and a parietal layer (lining the walls of the cavities) with a lubricating serous fluid between the two layers. The serous membrane of the pleural cavities, pericardial cavity and abdominal cavity are called the pleura, pericardium and peritoneum, respectively.

Question 18

Describe the structure and functions of the plasma membrane

Answer 18

The structure of the plasma membrane is composed primarily of lipids and proteins forming a unique phospholipid bilayer which provides the cell with hydrophilic properties on the outside of the plasma membrane and hydrophobic properties within the membrane. The plasma membrane serves a variety of functions for the cell such as a physical barrier from the outside environment which not only provides protection but also maintains the cells specific organelles. A main function of the cell’s plasma membrane is its ability to filter or decide what substances can enter and leave the cell and what substances cannot, which is also known as selective permeability.

Question 19

Describe the processes that transport substances across the plasma membrane

Answer 19

Substance are transported across the cell membrane by a variety of routes which include simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. Simple diffusion occurs when small uncharged molecules or lipid soluble molecules pass between the lipid bilayers from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. Facilitated diffusion occurs when substances move in and out of the cell through specified and specialized protein channels. Osmosis is a process similar to simple diffusion and involves the same characteristics but it is solely water moving from areas of higher water concentration to lower water concentration. Active transport is the process in which a substance is transported up its concentration gradient from an area of lower concentration to higher concentration. This action requires energy in the form of ATP.

Question 20

Cytoplasm

Answer 20

Structure: Jelly like material that surrounds organelles. It is formed of a lattice of thin protein strands that interconnect and create a supporting network. Within the cytoplasm is the cytoskeleton as well as many ions Function: Protein lattice holds organelles in their place in the cell. The cytoskeleton is responsible for the shape and movement of the cell. Ions in the cell allow for electoral conduction. Cytoplasmic streaming, or churning, allows materials to move around the cell

Question 21

Cytosol- intracellular fluid (ICF) or cytoplasmic matrix

Answer 21

Structure: Liquid component of cytoplasm. It is comprised primarily of water but also contains ions such as potassium, sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, magnesium and calcium; it differs from extracellular fluid in that there is a high concentration of potassium and low concentration of sodium. Macromolecules and proteins also make up the cytosol Function: Most of the chemical reactions of cellular metabolism occur in the cytosol. Potassium and sodium concentrations play a role in osmoregulation and cell signaling

Question 22

Cell Wall

Answer 22

Structure: outer layer of cell that is made of cellulose. Is rigid, strong, stiff and only found in plant cells Function: Supports cell structure, protects organelles, and allows H20, O2 and CO2 to pass into and out of cell

Question 23

Plasma Membrane

Answer 23

Structure: lipid bilayer containg phospholipids, steroids, and proteins Function: Provides isolation, protection, sensitivity, and support as well as the transfer and materials into and out of the cell. They may also function as receptors,channels, carriers, enzymes, anchors, or identifiers

Question 24

Nucleus

Answer 24

Structure: Nucleoplasm containing nucleotides, enzymes, and nucleoproteins. It is surrounded by a double membrane. Function: controls metabolism, stores and processes genetic information, and controls protein synthesis

Question 25

Nucleolus

Answer 25

Structure: It is a denseregion in the nucleoplasm containing DNA and RNA Function: Synthesizes rRNA and assembles ribosomal sub units

Question 26

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Answer 26

Structure: Network of membranous channels extending through cytoplasm. It attaches to the nuclear envelope. Rough ER has ribosomes attached and smooth ER does not Function: The er synthesizes carbohydrates, proteins and lipids; stores molecules; and transports materials in the cell. The smooth ER produces lipids and carts whereas the rough ER makes proteins

Question 27

Ribosomes

Answer 27

Structure: They are comprised of RNA and proteins. Fixed ribosomes are attached to rough ER and free ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm Function: They manufacture proteins provided by the DNA of the nucleus

Question 28

Golgi Apparatus

Answer 28

Structure: stacks of flattened membrans containing chambers Function: stores, alters, and packages secretor products such as enzymes, modifies the cell membrane, and forms lysosomes. Substances made in the rough ER move to the golgi apparatus which modifies the newly arrived molecules and moces them closer to the cell surface.

Question 29

Lysosome

Answer 29

Structure: vesicles containing powerful digestive enzymes Function: removes damaged ortanelles or pathogens within cell

Question 30

Mitochondria

Answer 30

Structure: double membrane cell with the inner folds or critae enclosing important metabolic enzymes Function: provides 95% of ATP required by cell

Question 31

Cytoskeleton

Answer 31

Structure: Proteins organized in fine filaments of slender tubes, specifically icrofilaments (actin) and microtubules (tubulin Function: Provides strength and enables movement of cellular structures and materials

Question 32

Cilia and Flagella

Answer 32

Structure: Extensions of the membrane that contain microtubule doublets Function: Assists movement of materials over cell surface

Question 33

Describe the sequence of events that take place during protein synthesis

Answer 33

1. Transcription- the formation of messenger RNA, mRNA. RNA polymerase binds to the preliminary segment of a gene that contains the coding information responsible to create the desired protein. A strand of mRNA complimentary to the existing DNA in the nucleus is created using the nucleotides guanine, cytosine, adenine, and uracil; adenine/ uracil and guanine/ cytosine and compliments of each other. A set of three nitrogenous bases is known as a codon. Once the strand of mRNA is completed it may be altered before it leaves the cell. 2. Translation Translation is the synthesis of a protein using the information provided by codons. Each codon represents a specific amino acid. The order of codons dictate the sequential order of amino acids and therefore the protein to be created. Once mRNA leaves the nucleus it attaches to a ribosome. Transfer RNA, tRNA, then brings a complementary codon, called ananticodon, to the ribosome. Attached to the anticodon is an amino acid specific to that sequence of nucletides. tRNA will continue bringing antocodons until the string of amino acids is complete and a protein is fully formed.

Question 34

Interphase

Answer 34

is the resting (non-mitotic) phase of cellular division. It is composed of the G1, S and G2 stages of the cell cycle.

Question 35

G1

Answer 35

Active RNA and protein synthesis for growing cell

Question 36

S

Answer 36

DNA is produced

Question 37

G2

Answer 37

Transition into Prophase

Question 38

Prophase

Answer 38

the first stage of mitosis. The chromosomes condense and become visible The centrioles form and move toward opposite ends of the cell (“the poles”) The nuclear membrane dissolves The mitotic spindle forms (from the centrioles in animal cells) Spindle fibers from each centriole attach to each sister chromatid at the kinetochore

Question 39

Metaphase

Answer 39

The Centrioles complete their migration to the poles The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell (“the equator”)

Question 40

Anaphase

Answer 40

Spindles attached to kinetochores begin to shorten. This exerts a force on the sister chromatids that pulls them apart. Spindle fibers continue to shorten, pulling chromatids to opposite poles. This ensures that each daughter cell gets identical sets of chromosomes

Question 41

Telophase

Answer 41

final stage of somatic cell division The chromosomes decondense The nuclear envelope forms Cytokinesis reaches completion, creating two daughter cell

Question 42

Describe the signals that induce cell division

Answer 42

Cells are mainly induced into proliferation by growth factors or hormones that occupy specific receptors on the surface of the cell membrane, being also known as extra-cellular ligands. Examples of growth factors are as such: epidermal growth factor (EGF), fibroblastic growth factor (FGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), or by hormones. PDGF and FGF act by regulating the phase G2 of the cell cycle and during mitosis. After mitosis, they act again stimulating the daughter cells to grow, thus leading them from G0 to G1. Therefore, FGF and PDGF are also termed competence factors, whereas EGF and IGF are termed progression factors, because they keep the process of cellular progression to mitosis going on. Growth factors are also classified (along with other molecules that promote the cell cycle) as pro-mitotic signals. Hormones are also pro-mitotic signals. For example, thyrotrophic hormone, one of the hormones produced by the pituitary gland, induces the proliferation of thyroid gland’s cells. Another pituitary hormone, known as growth hormone or somatotrophic hormone (STH), is responsible for body growth during childhood and early adolescence, inducing the lengthening of the long bones and protein synthesis. Estrogens are hormones that do not occupy a membrane receptor, but instead, penetrate the cell and the nucleus, binding directly to specific sites in the DNA, thus inducing the cell cycle.

Question 43

Tight Junctions

Answer 43

Barriers that regulate the movement of water and solutes between epithelial layers Act as a fence that maintains differential composition of basolateral and apical membrane domains, limiting diffusion of lipids and proteins between cellular compartments Main components are claudins, occludins, and junctional adhesion molecules

Question 44

Adherens Junctions

Answer 44

Are the building blocks of tissue architecture Main components are cadherins and catenins Microfilaments anchor the plaque that occurs under the membrane of each cell In heart muscle, layers covering body organs, and digestive tract

Question 45

Desmosomes

Answer 45

Visualized as rivets through the plasma membrane of adjacent cells Intermediate filaments composed of keratin/desmin are attached to membrane-associated attachment proteins that form a dense plaque on the cytoplasmic face of the membrane Cadherin molecules form actual anchor by attaching to cytoplasmic plaque, extending through the membrane and binding strongly to cadherins coming through the membrane of adjacent cell

Question 46

Hemidesmosomes

Answer 46

Form rivet like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix components as in basal laminae that underlie epithelia They tie to intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm, but their transmembrane anchors are integrins

Question 47

Gap Junctions

Answer 47

Allow direct chemical communication between adjacent cellular cytoplasm through diffusion without contact of the extracellular fluid Connexin proteins interact to form a cylinder with a pore in the center This protrudes across the cell membrane and when 2 adjacent cells connexons interact they form a gap junction Vital roles in uniform contractile of heart muscle, signal transfers in brain, retinal and skin cells with cell differentiation and proliferation

Question 48

Describe the general features of connective tissue

Answer 48

Connective tissues are characterized by abundant amounts of extracellular matrix in which a variety of cell types are dispersed. The extracellular matrix between the cells usually includes fibers of one or more types embedded in an amorphous ground substance. These features allow for the following functions: binding, support and packaging, protection, defense and repair, insulation (fat), and transportation (blood).

Question 49

Bones Classified by Shape

Answer 49

Flat bones- flat in appearance and have two prominent surfaces. They resemble shallow plates and form boundaries of certain body cavities Ex- bones of the skull, sternum, pelvis and ribs Tubular bone- typically have an elongated shaft and two expanded ends one on either side of the shaft. The shaft is called diaphysis and the ends are called epiphyses. Normally, the epiphysis are smooth and articular. The shaft has a central medullary cavity where the bone marrow lies. long tubular bones are bones of the extremities Ex- femur, humerus Short tubular bones are bones of the hands and feet Irregular bone- shape is completely irregular and they do not fit into any category of shape Ex-bones of the face and vertebrae Sesamoid bones- not like the other types of bones because they are in the form of nodules embedded in tendons and joint capsules. They do not possess any periosteum and their ossification takes place after birth Ex- patella, pisiform and fabella

Question 50

Foramina of Frontal Bone

Answer 50

Supraorbital foramen or notch: Supraorbital nerve, artery and vein.

Question 51

Foramina of Temporal Bone

Answer 51

Carotid canal: Internal carotid artery. External acoustic meatus: Sound waves to eardrum. Internal acoustic meatus: Vestibulocochlear and facial nerves, internal auditory vessels. Stylomastoid foramen: Facial nerve. Mastoid foramen: Meningeal artery, vein from sigmoid sinus. Jugular foramen: Internal jugular vein, glossopharyngeal and vagus and accessory nerves.

Question 52

Foramina of Parietal Bone

Answer 52

Parietal foramen: Emissary vein of superior longitudinal sinus.

Question 53

Foramina of Occipital Bone

Answer 53

Foramen magnum: Spinal cord, accessory nerve, vertebral arteries, medulla oblongata. Hypoglossal canal: Hypoglossal nerve. Condylar canal: Vein from transverse sinus, meningeal branch of ascending pharyngeal artery, emissary vein.

Question 54

Foramina of Maxillary Bone

Answer 54

Infraorbital foramen: Infraorbital nerves and vessels, maxillary division of trigeminal nerve. Incisive foramen: Nasopalatine nerves. Inferior orbital fissure: Infraorbital nerve, zygomatic nerve, infraorbital vessels.

Question 55

Foramina of Sphenoid Bone

Answer 55

Foramen ovale: Mandibular division of trigeminal nerve, accessory meningeal artery. Foramen rotundum: Maxillary division of trigeminal nerve. Foramen spinosum: Middle meningeal artery, spinosal nerve, part of trigeminal nerve. Optic foramen: Optic nerve, ophthalmic artery. Superior orbital fissure: Oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerves; opthalmic division of trigeminal nerve, ophthalmic veins.

Question 56

Foramina of Ethmoid Bone

Answer 56

Olfactory foramina: Olfactory nerves.

Question 57

Foramina of Lacrimal Bone

Answer 57

Lacrimal foramen: Tear duct leading to nasal cavity.

Question 58

Foramina of Palatine Bone

Answer 58

Greater palatine foramen: Palatine nerves.

Question 59

Foramina of Zygomatic Bone

Answer 59

Zygomaticofacial foramen: Zygomaticofacial nerve. Zygomaticotemporal foramen: Zygomaticotemporal nerve.

Question 60

Foramina of Mandible

Answer 60

Mental foramen: Mental nerve and vessels. Mandibular foramen: Inferior alveolar nerves and vessels to the lower teeth.

Question 61

Describe the relationship of the hyoid bone to the skull.

Answer 61

The hyoid bone (lingual bone) is a horseshoe-shaped bone situated in the anterior midline of the neck between the chin and the thyroid cartilage. At rest, it lies at the level of the base of the mandible in the front and the third cervical vertebra (C3) behind. It is only distantly articulated to other bones by muscles or ligaments. The hyoid is anchored by muscles from the anterior, posterior and inferior directions, and aids in tongue movement and swallowing. The hyoid bone provides attachment to the muscles of the floor of the mouth and the tongue above, the larynx below, and the epiglottis and pharynx behind.