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TOS PsychAssessment > Module 8: Statistics > Flashcards

Module 8: Statistics Flashcards

1
Q

Measurement

A

the act of assigning numbers or symbols to characteristics of things according to rules

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2
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

methods used to provide concise description of a collection of quantitative information

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3
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

method used to make inferences from observations of a small group of people known as sample to a larger group of individuals known as population

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4
Q

Magnitude

A

the property of “moreness”

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5
Q

Equal Intervals

A

the difference between two points at any place on the scale has the same meaning as the difference between two other points that differ by the same number of scale units

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6
Q

Absolute 0

A

when nothing of the property being measured exists

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7
Q

Scale

A

+ a set of numbers who properties model empirical properties of the objects to which the numbers are assigned
+ the way numbers are categorized or assigned

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8
Q

What are the types of scales?

A
  1. Continuous Scale
  2. Discrete Scale
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9
Q

Continuous Scale

A

+ takes on any value within the range and the possible value within that range is infinite
+ used to measure a variable which can theoretically be divided

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10
Q

Discrete Scale

A

+ can be counted; has distinct, countable values
+ used to measure a variable which cannot be theoretically be divided

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11
Q

Error

A

+ refers to the collective influence of all the factors on a test score or measurement beyond those specifically measured by the test or measurement
+ degree to which the test score/measurement may be wrong, considering other factors like state of the testtaker, venue, test itself etc.

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12
Q

What kind of scale always involves error?

A

Measurement with continuous scale always involve with error

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13
Q

What are the four levels of scales of measurement?

A
  1. Nominal
  2. Order
  3. Interval
  4. Ratio
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14
Q

Nominal

A

+ involve classification or categorization based on one or more distinguishing characteristics
+ label and categorize observations but do not make any quantitative distinctions between observations
+ mode

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15
Q

Ordinal

A

+ rank ordering on some characteristics is also permissible
+ median

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16
Q

Interval

A

+ contains equal intervals, has no absolute zero point (even negative values have interpretation to it)
+ zero value does not mean it represents none

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17
Q

Ratio

A

+ has true zero point (if the score is zero, it means none/null)
+ easiest to manipulate

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18
Q

Distribution

A

defined as a set of test scores arrayed for recording or study

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19
Q

Raw Scores

A

straightforward, unmodified accounting of performance that is usually numerical

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20
Q

Frequency Distribution

A

all scores are listed alongside the number of times each score occurred

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21
Q

Independent Variable

A

being manipulated in the study

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22
Q

Quasi-Independent Variable

A

+ nonmanipulated variable to designate groups
+ Factor: for ANOVA

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23
Q

Post-Hoc Tests

A

used in ANOVA to determine which mean differences are significantly different

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24
Q

Turkey’s HSD Test

A

allows the compute a single value that determines the minimum difference between treatment means that is necessary for significance

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25
Q

Measures of Central Tendency

A

statistics that indicates the average or midmost score between the extreme scores in a distribution

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26
Q

What is the goal of measures of central tendency?

A

Identify the most typical or representative of entire group

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27
Q

Mean

A

+ the average of all the raw scores
+ Equal to the sum of the observations divided by the number of observations
+ Interval and ratio data (when normal distribution)
+ Point of least squares
+ Balance point for the distribution

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28
Q

Median

A

+ the middle score of the distribution
+ Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
+ Useful in cases where relatively few scores fall at the high end of the distribution or relatively few scores fall at the low end of the distribution
+ In other words, for extreme scores, use median (skewed)
+ Identical for sample and population
+ Also used when there has an unknown or undetermined score
+ Used in “open-ended” categories (e.g., 5 or more, more than 8, at least 10)
+ For ordinal data

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29
Q

Mode

A

+ Most frequently occurring score in the distribution
+ Not commonly used
+ Useful in analyses of qualitative or verbal nature
+ For nominal scales, discrete variables
+ Value of the mode gives an indication of the shape of the distribution as well as a measure of central tendency

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30
Q

Bimodal Distribution

A

if there are two scores that occur with highest frequency

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31
Q

Variability

A

an indication how scores in a distribution are scattered or dispersed

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32
Q

Measures of Variability

A

statistics that describe the amount of variation in a distribution

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33
Q

Range

A

+ Equal to the difference between highest and the lowest score
+ Provides a quick but gross description of the spread of scores
+ When its value is based on extreme scores of the distribution, the resulting description of variation may be understated or overstated

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34
Q

Quartile

A

+ dividing points between the four quarters in the distribution
+ specific point

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35
Q

Quarter

A

refers to an interval

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36
Q

Interquartile Range

A

measure of variability equal to the difference between Q3 and Q1

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37
Q

Semi-interquartile Range

A

equal to the interquartile range divided by 2

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38
Q

Standard Deviation

A

+ equal to the square root of the average squared deviations about the mean
+ Equal to the square root of the variance
+ Distance from the mean

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39
Q

Variance

A

equal to the arithmetic mean of the squares of the differences between the scores in a distribution and their mean

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40
Q

Normal Curve

A

+ also known as Gaussian Curve
+ Bell-shaped, smooth, mathematically defined curve that is highest at its center

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41
Q

Asymptotic

A

approaches but never touches the axis

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42
Q

Tail

A

2 – 3 standard deviations above and below the mean

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43
Q

Symmetrical Distribution

A

+ right side of the graph is mirror image of the left side
+ has only one mode and it is in the center of the distribution
+ mean = median = mode

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44
Q

Skewness

A

nature and extent to which symmetry is absent

45
Q

Positive Skewed

A

+ few scores fall the high end of the distribution
+ Mean > Median > Mode
+ More items that was easier would have been desirable in order to better discriminate at the lower end of the distribution of test scores

46
Q

What does it mean when the test scores are positively skewed?

A

The exam is difficult

47
Q

Negative Skewed

A

+ when relatively few of the scores fall at the low end of the distribution
+ More items of a higher level of difficulty would make it possible to better discriminate between scores at the upper end of the distribution
+ Mean < Median < Mode

48
Q

What does it mean when the test scores are negatively skewed?

A

The exam is easy

49
Q

What are skewed graphs associated with?

A

Skewed is associated with abnormal, perhaps because the skewed distribution deviates from the symmetrical or so-called normal distribution

50
Q

Kurtosis

A

steepness if a distribution in its center

51
Q

Leptokurtic

A

relatively peaked

51
Q

Platykurtic

A

relatively flat

52
Q

Mesokurtic

A

somewhere in the middle

53
Q

High Kurtosis

A

high peak and fatter tails

54
Q

Lower Kurtosis

A

rounded peak and thinner tails

55
Q

Standard Score

A

raw score that has been converted from one scale to another scale

56
Q

Z-scores

A

+ results from the conversion of a raw score into a number indicating how many SD units the raw score is below or above the mean of the distribution
+ Identify and describe the exact location of each score in a distribution
+ Standardize an entire distribution
+ Zero plus or minus one scale
+ Have negative values
+ Requires that we know the value of the variance

57
Q

T-scores

A

+ a scale with a mean set at 50 and a standard deviation set at 10
+ Fifty plus or minus 10 scale
+ 5 standard deviations below the mean would be equal to a t-score of 0
+ Raw score that fell in the mean has T of 50
+ Raw score 5 standard deviations about the mean would be equal to a T of 100
+ No negative values
+ Used when the population or variance is unknown

58
Q

Stanine

A

a method of scaling test scores on a nine- point standard scale with a mean of five (5) and a standard deviation of two (2)

59
Q

Linear Transformation

A

one that retains a direct numerical relationship to the original raw score

60
Q

Nonlinear Transformation

A

required when the data under consideration are not normally distributed

61
Q

Normalized Standard Score Scale

A

Normalizing the distribution involves stretching the skewed curve into the shape of a normal curve and creating a corresponding scale of standard scores

62
Q

What is generally preferrable to do for a skewed curve?

A

Generally preferrable to fine-tune the test according to difficulty or other relevant variables so that the resulting distribution will approximate the normal curve

63
Q

STEN

A

standard to ten; divides a scale into 10 units

64
Q

Hypothesis Testing

A

statistical method that uses a sample data to evaluate a hypothesis about a population

65
Q

Alternative Hypothesis

A

states there is a change, difference, or relationships

66
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

no change, no difference, or no relationship

67
Q

Alpha Level or Level of Significance

A

used to define concept of “very unlikely” in a hypothesis test

68
Q

Critical Region

A

composed of extreme values that are very unlikely to be obtained if the null hypothesis is true

69
Q

What is the hypothesis if the sample data falls in the critical region?

A

If sample data fall in the critical region, the null hypothesis is rejected

70
Q

What is the alpha level for a hypothesis test?

A

The alpha level for a hypothesis test is the probability that the test will lead to a Type I error

71
Q

Directional Hypothesis Test or One-Tailed Test

A

statistical hypotheses specify either an increase or a decrease in the population mean

72
Q

T-Test

A

+ used to test hypotheses about an unknown population mean and variance
+ Can be used in “before and after” type of research
+ Sample must consist of independent observationsꟷthat is, if there is not consistent, predictable relationship between the first observation and the second
+ The population that is sampled must be normal
+ If not normal distribution, use a large sample

73
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

number that provides us with an index of the strength of the relationship between two things

74
Q

Correlation

A

an expression of the degree and direction of correspondence between two things

75
Q

What are the two possible directions for a correlation?

A
  1. Positive
  2. Negative
76
Q

What is the magnitude of a correlation?

A

number anywhere to -1 to 1

77
Q

Positive Correlation

A

same direction, either both going up or both going down

78
Q

Negative Correlation

A

Inverse Direction, either DV is up and IV goes down or IV goes up and DV goes down

79
Q

0 in correlation

A

no correlation

80
Q

Pearson r/Pearson Correlation
Coefficient/Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation

A

+ used when two variables being correlated are continuous and linear
+ Devised by Karl Pearson

81
Q

Coefficient of Determination

A

an indication of how much variance is shared by the X- and Y- variables

82
Q

Spearman Rho/Rank-Order Correlation
Coefficient/Rank-Difference Correlation
Coefficient

A

+ frequently used if the sample size is small and when both sets of measurement are in ordinal
+ Developed by Charles Spearman

83
Q

Outlier

A

extremely atypical point located at a relatively long distance from the rest of the coordinate points in a scatterplot

84
Q

Regression Analysis

A

+ used for prediction
+ predict the values of a dependent or response variable based on values of at least one independent or explanatory variable

85
Q

Residual (in regression analysis)

A

the difference between an observed value of the response variable and the value of the response variable predicted from the regression line

86
Q

The Principle of Least Squares

A

The least squares method is a statistical procedure to find the best fit for a set of data points

87
Q

Standard Error of Estimate

A

standard deviation of the residuals in regression analysis

88
Q

Slope

A

determines how much the Y variable changes when X is increased by 1 point

89
Q

T-Test (Independent)

A

+ comparison or determining differences
+ 2 different groups/independent samples interval/ratio scales (continuous variables)

90
Q

Equal Variance

A

2 groups are equal

91
Q

Unequal Variance

A

groups are unequal

92
Q

T-test (Dependent)/Paired Test

A

one groups nominal (either matched or repeated measures) + 2 treatments

93
Q

One-Way ANOVA

A

3 or more IV, 1 DV comparison of differences

94
Q

Two-Way ANOVA

A

2 IV, 1 DV

95
Q

Critical Value

A

reject the null and accept the alternative if [ obtained value > critical value ]

96
Q

P-Value (Probability Value)

A

reject null and accept alternative if [ p-value < alpha level ]

97
Q

Norms

A

refer to the performances by defined groups on a particular test

98
Q

Percentiles

A

an expression of the percentage of people whose score on a tests or measure falls below a particular raw score

99
Q

Age Norms

A

average performance of different samples of testtakers who were at various ages at the time the test was administered

100
Q

Grade Norms

A

developed by administering the test to representative samples of children over a range of consecutive grade levels

101
Q

Developmental Norms

A

developed on the basis of any trait, ability, skill, or other characteristics that is presumed to develop, deteriorate, or otherwise be affected by chronical age, school grade, or stage of life

102
Q

National Norms

A

derived from a normative sample that was nationally representative of the population at the time the norming study was conducted

103
Q

Subgroup Norms

A

normative sample can be segmented by any criteria initially used in selecting subjects for the sample

104
Q

Local Norms

A

provide normative information with respect to the local population’s performance on some tests

105
Q

Age-related Norms

A

certain tests have different normative groups for age groups

106
Q

Tracking

A

tendency to stay at about the same level relative to one’s peers

107
Q

Norm-Referenced Tests

A

compares each person with the norm

108
Q

Criterion-Referenced Tests

A

describes specific types of skills, tasks, or knowledge that the test taker can demonstrate

TOS PsychAssessment (15 decks)

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