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Biology: lifes machinary > module 4: multicellularity > Flashcards

module 4: multicellularity Flashcards

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1
Q

how does changes in DNA and proteins arise

A

through mutation

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2
Q

as time increases the mutation rate

A

also increases

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3
Q

what can a molecular clock do

A

estimate the time of divergence

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4
Q

what can a molecular clock do

A

estimate the time of divergence

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5
Q

how many times has multicellularity occurred

A

6 times

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6
Q

what is the process of multicellularity

A

-cells form a cluster
-they begin to communicate
- specialisation
- cells form tissues and organs

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7
Q

what are the consequences of multicellularity

A
  • cells can perform a specific task
    -cells work in unison
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8
Q

multicellularity enables the following

A

-specialisation
- formation of organs and tissues
- structurally complex bodies
-increased size
-increased efficiency

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9
Q

what embryogenesis

A

the multiple rounds of cell division when an organism is developed from a zygote

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10
Q

what is morphogenesis

A

cells and tissues arranging themselves to create the final form of the body

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11
Q

for animals are they organs formed when they are born

A

ues all of their tissues and organs are formed

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12
Q

for plants are their organs formed when they are born

A

very few organs and tissues are formed

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13
Q

what are ligands

A

a chemical signal that activates receports on nearly cells

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14
Q

how do plants expand if they are semi rigid

A

-take up water to expand vacuoles
-increased turgidity triggers the release of enzyme to soften the wall

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15
Q

what is expansion

A

a protein that looses the cell wall to allow water into the cell

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16
Q

how does expansin work

A

They disrupt the bonds between cellulose microfibrils and other cell wall components, making the wall more flexible

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17
Q

what is the primary cell wall

A

-simi rigid
-allows for expansion

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18
Q

what is the secondary cell wall

A

-thick and regid
-expansion is not possible

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19
Q

what are the directions of plant growth

A

-tropism
-phototropism
-heilotropism

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20
Q

what is tropism

A

Tropism is growth towards or away from a stimulus- light, gravity, water and touch

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21
Q

what is phototropism

A

differential growth in response to light

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22
Q

what is Heliotropism

A

growth that follows the path of the sun

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23
Q

what is auxin

A

plant growth hormone that promotes the expansion of the cell

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24
Q

what does auxin do

A

plant growth hormone that works to expand the cell by lowering the pH in the cell to activate expansion and promoting the activity of a protein pump

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25
Q

draw the following

A

draw it bitch

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26
Q

what does embryogenesis establish

A

the basic plan of the plant (the morphology of the plant)

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27
Q

what are the stages of plant embryogenesis

A
  1. zygote formation
  2. two cell stage
  3. octant stage
  4. heart stage
  5. mutation stage
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28
Q

what happens during zygote formation

A

Fertilization occurs when a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, resulting in the formation of a zygote. The zygote contains the genetic material from both parents and marks the beginning of embryogenesis.

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29
Q

what happens during the two cell stage

A

At the 2-cell stage of plant embryogenesis, the zygote divides into two cells through mitosis. One cell develops into the suspensor, aiding nutrient transfer, while the other cell forms the majority of the embryo, including the shoot and root systems.

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30
Q

what happens at the octant stage

A

At the octant stage of plant embryogenesis, the embryo consists of eight cells in two tiers. The upper tier forms the proembryo, giving rise to the shoot system, while the lower tier contributes to the suspensor, supporting the embryo and aiding in nutrient transfe

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31
Q

what happens at the heart stage

A

differentiation due to different gene expression expressing particular genes within the cells

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32
Q

do plants grow after embryonic development

A

yes they grow new organs like leaves and flowers

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33
Q

what are stem cells

A

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into specialized cell types and self-renew through division

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34
Q

what do tree rings look like in winter, summer and spring

A

winter- nothing
summer- dark ring
spring- light ring

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35
Q

reduction is turgor pressure leads to

A

plants become flaccid
- wilting occurs

36
Q

increase in turgor pressure leads to plants being

A

turgid plants

37
Q

how does water move up a plant

A

water moves up a plant through adhesion and cohesion

38
Q

what is adhesion

A

interaction between water molecules and the xylem wall (capillary action)
-adhesion increases as the tubes diameter becomes smaller

39
Q

what is cohesion

A

interaction of water molecules with other water molecules via hydrogen bonds

40
Q

how does cohesion work

A

Cohesion is the intermolecular force that holds water molecules together through hydrogen bonding. It creates properties like high surface tension and allows water to climb in narrow tubes through capillary action.

41
Q

what does the xylem transport

A

water!!!!!

42
Q

what does the phloem transport

A

carbohydrates and other solutes

43
Q

the transportation of water through the xylem is call

A

transpiration

44
Q

the transportation of carbohydrates and solutes in the phloem is called

A

translocation

45
Q

if there is light the stomata will

A

open because
-protons are pumped out
ions enter lowering solute
-h2o enters
pores open

46
Q

if there is no light the stomata will

A

close
- proton pump becomes less active
-ions diffuse out
-water flows by osmosis
-pressure goes down
-pores close

47
Q

what is the role of companion cells

A

Companion cells support the function of sieve tube elements in the phloem, facilitating the transport of sugars and other nutrients in plants. They load sugars into sieve tubes, maintain energy supply, and regulate solute concentrations for efficient long-distance nutrient transport.

48
Q

what is the role of sieve tubes

A

Sieve tubes are responsible for the long-distance transport of sugars and other nutrients in plants through the phloem.

49
Q

what if the difference between sieve tubes and companion cells

A

-Companion cells support sieve tubes in the phloem. Companion cells provide energy, nutrient loading, and regulation of solute concentrations.

-Sieve tubes are non-living cells responsible for long-distance transport of sugars and nutrients in the plant.

50
Q

what is the mass flow hypothesis

A

-The mass flow hypothesis explains the movement of sugars in plants’ phloem.

-Sugars are actively loaded into the phloem at source regions, creating a high concentration gradient.

-This gradient causes water to enter the phloem via osmosis, creating high turgor pressure.

-The pressure gradient drives the flow of sugars and water from source to sink regions.

-Sugars are actively unloaded at sink regions, reducing turgor pressure and allowing water to exit the phloem.

-This hypothesis suggests that the bulk flow of sugars driven by pressure differences enables long-distance nutrient transport in plants.

51
Q

what is homeostasis

A

maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite changes in internal and external conditions

52
Q

what is negative feedback

A

a feedback loop where the stimulus moves away from equilibrium by opposing the change

53
Q

what is needed for cell communication

A
  • a receptor
  • a control centre
    -effector
54
Q

what are the 3 ways cell communicate

A
  1. cytoplasmic connection
  2. hormones
  3. lacl signalling
55
Q

what do hydrophilic hormones bind to

A

Binds to cell surface membrane receptors

56
Q

what do lipophilic hormones bind to

A

Binds to hydrophillic transport proteins

57
Q

what does the liver store glucose as

A

glycogen

58
Q

insulin binding activates the receptor which has 2 effects

A
  1. increase number of glucose transporters in the membreane
  2. activate an enzyme glycogen synthase to convert glucose into glycogen
59
Q

what is glucagon

A

a hormone that your pancreas makes to help regulate your blood glucose

60
Q

when glucose is high

A

high levels of glucose is detected by pancrease cells and release insulin

liver converts glucose into glycogen

blood sugar levels drops

61
Q

what happens when glucose is low

A

pancreas cells stimulate the release of glucagon into the blood

liver breaks down glycogen into glucose and release it into the blood

glucose levels rise and glucagon is released is diminished

62
Q

what happens if we drink too much water

A

kidneys cannot cope and organs begin to swell

63
Q

isotonic meaning

A

equal solute concentration

64
Q

hypotonic meaning

A

solutions surrounding the cell have lower solute concentration

65
Q

hypertonic meaning

A

solution surrounding cell has higher solute concentration then cell

66
Q

what are the 3 environments fort animals to live in

A

-terrestial
-fresh water
-salt water

67
Q

what is an osmoconformer

A

osmotic concentration of internal environments is the same as the external environment

68
Q

what is an osmoregulator

A

osmotic concentration of internal environment is different to the external environment

69
Q

disadvantages of osmoconformer

A

· Osmoconformers usually cannot cope with large changes in the body salinity, therefore must live in environments where salinity changes little

70
Q

advantages of osmoregulators

A

· Osmoregulator can cope with a wide range of salinities

71
Q

disadvantages of osmoregulars

A

require a lot of energy due to their high metabolic rate

72
Q

problems organisms face with salt water

A

-not enough water and too much salt
-not enough water and too much salt

73
Q

what is the solution for salt water fish to get water

A

produce small amount of concentrated urine, actively excrete ions (across the gills in fish or kidneys or salt glands)

74
Q

why are salmon cool

A

because they can live in fresh water and salt water

75
Q

what do salmon do when they are in fresh water (low solute concentration)

A
  • Don’t drink water
    • Kidneys produce lots of dilute urine
      Gill epithelial cells: pump Na+ and Cl- from water flowing over gills into blood to increase solute concentration of blood and body fluids
76
Q

what do salmon do in saltwater (high solute concentration)

A
  • Kidneys produce a small amount of concentrated urine
    Gill epithelial cells: pump Na+ and Cl- from blood into water flowing over gills to decreases solute concentration of blood and body fluids
77
Q

what is the problem with terrestrial osmoregulator

A

not enough water in the environment (especially in deserts)

78
Q

what is the solution that osmoregulators adapted

A

-get water from food and drink
-Some absorb water through skin and anus
-Minimise water loss during excretion of waste ie concentrated urine

79
Q

what is a nephron

A

small functional unit if the kidneys

80
Q

what are the functions of the nephron

A

-filtration
- reabsorption
- secretion
- osmosis

81
Q

what is filtered in the nephron

A

all blood plasma except blood cells and large proteins enter tubule

82
Q

what is readsorbed in the nephrons

A
  • Na+ and Cl- ions
    -amino acids
    -glucose
  • vitamins
83
Q

what type of regulation does the kidney follow

A

-negative feedback

84
Q

what are the different types of waste from nitrogeneous waste

A
  • ammonia
  • uric acid
  • urea
  • guanine
85
Q

what are the different types of waste from nitrogeneous waste

A
  • ammonia
  • uric acid
  • urea
  • guanine
86
Q

what do juxtamedullary nephron do

A

-concentrate urine
- Establish a high osmotic concentration in the inner medulla

Biology: lifes machinary (7 decks)

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