module 2: maintaining life Flashcards
what infomation do genes carry
genes carry genetic information that have the information to make proteins
how many amino acids are proteins made up of
20
how is the genetic code universal
almost all organisms have the have same genetic code
how is the genetic code degenerate
different codons can code for the same amini acids
what do stop codons do
terminate protein synthesis
what is the start codon
AUG
what are the steps for transcription
- sigma factors of RNA polymerase bind to the promotor sequence on the DNA and RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA molecule
- RNA polymerase moves in a 5’ to 3’ direction synthesising an mRNA strand complementary to the DNA strand
- when RNA polymerase reaches the termination sequence, RNA polymerase detaches
what is the enzyme that is used to charge tRNA with amino acids
aminoacyl-synthase
what are the 3 sites of the ribosome
-acceptor site (A)- where tRNA molecule approches
- peptidyl Site (p)- bonding site
-exit site (E)- tRNA molcule is released
what is the initiation stage for translation
-a small subunit binds to the recognition site on mRNA
- met binds to the initation sequence and then the large subunit binds to create the initiation complex.
what is the elongation stage for translation
-codon recognition
- peptide bond formation through a condesation reaction
-tRNA carrying another amino acids approaches the A site
- a peptide bond is formed between the 2 amino acids
- the ribosome moves one codon down and another amino acids bonds to the A site
- this process is continued
what is the termination satge for translation
- a termination sequence reaches the A site elongation is terminated
-chain is released from the ribosome - the large and small subunits detach
what is positive gene regulation
when a regulatory protein binds to the promotor region to facilitate the production of mRNA
what is negative gene regulation
the binding of regulatory proteins to the promoter that prevents transcription
can energy be created or destroyed
no
where do decomposers get their energy from
the sun
what is the formular for delta G
delta G = enrgy from products - energy from reactions
ΔG=G final–G initial
what is an exergonic reaction
a reaction where energy is released
what is an endogonic reaction
a reaction where energy is adsorbed
what is a catabolic reaction
a reaction where large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules
what is an anabolic reaction
a reaction where smaller molecules are built into larger molecules
what is the activation energy for a chemical reaction
the energy required to start a chemical reaction
what are enzymes
biological catalysts that increase the rate of reactions of reactions where they are specific for
what happens when a substrate binds to an enzyme
substrate binds to the enzyme, there is a conformational change and the enzyme releases the products
what is gibbs free enrgy
amount of energy avaliable to do work (usable enrgy)
what is an exergonic reaction
energy is released and the delta G (enthalpy) is negative
what is an endergonic reaction
energy is absored into the system and the delta G (enthalpy) is positive
what is a catabolic reaction
a reaction that breaks down large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules
is a catabolic reaction exogonic or endogonic
exogonic
what is an anabolic reaction
a chemical reaction where smaller molecules are build up into larger more complex molecules
do anabolic reactions require energy
yes they do as they link small molecules together
what is the activation energy
the energy required to start a chemical reaction
what is an enzyme
a biological catalyst
what is a catalyst
a substance that lowers the activation energy and thus speeds up a chemical reaction
how do enzymes work
by providing an alternative reaction pathway
how do enzymes work
by providing an alternative reaction pathway
are enzymes specific
yes they are highly specific
are enzymes specific
yes they are highly specific
what are the 2 things that faciliate enzymes
- orientation
- physcial strain
how does the ezymes orientation facilitate an enzyme
The substrate must be specific to the enzyme
how does physical strain facilitate an enzyme
- Confirmational change in the enzyme
This forces the reaction
what is the equation for cellular respiration
Glucose + 6 oxygen —-> 6 carbon dioxide + 6 water + 36-36 energy
what are the mian sources of enregy
- electromatic energy coming from the sun
chemcial energy stored within the chemical bonds
what are the 3 stages of cellular respiration
glycolysis
citric acid cycle
electron transport chain
what are the stages for glycolysis
Starting the Process: a phosphate group is added to activate the glucose
Breaking the Sugar Apart: Glucose-6-phosphate is rearranged and split into two smaller three-carbon molecules
Making Energy: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is converted to pyruvate, producing two ATP molecules and two molecules of a molecule called NADH, which can be used to generate more ATP.
what is the diagram for the citric acid cycle
what is the diagram for glycolysis, link reaction and the citric acid cycle
where does the citric acid cycle take place
mitrocondria matrix
where does glycolysis take place
cytoplasm of the cell
where does the electron transport chain take place
in the mitrocondria christae
what are the steps for the ETC
Energy-carrying molecules (NADH and FADH2) donate electrons to a chain of proteins in the inner membrane.
The electrons move down the chain, releasing energy that pumps hydrogen ions (protons) from the inside of the mitochondria to the outside, creating a concentration gradient.
The final protein in the chain passes the electrons to oxygen, which combines with protons to form water.
The concentration gradient created by the movement of protons back into the mitochondria through a protein called ATP synthase powers the production of ATP.
where does photosynthesis take place
the the chloroplasts
what are the 2 stages of photosynthesis
- light dependent stage
- light independent stage
what happens in the light reaction
Light is absorbed by pigments in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts.
The absorbed light excites electrons in chlorophyll, which are then passed down a chain of proteins.
This movement of electrons creates a gradient that drives the production of ATP and NADPH.
ATP and NADPH are used in the light-independent reactions to produce sugars.
what are the steps for the light dependent reaction or the calvin cycle (not explained)
- carbon fixation
- reduction
- regeneration
what happens at carbon fixation
Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air is incorporated into an organic molecule called ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) by an enzyme called RuBisCO. This reaction results in the formation of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
what happens at reduction
The energy from ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions is used to convert 3-PGA to a sugar called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). Some G3P molecules are used to make glucose or other sugars, while others are recycled to regenerate RuBP.
what happens at regenderation
The remaining G3P molecules are used to regenerate RuBP through a series of reactions that require ATP.
what is rubisco (RuBisCo)
an enzyme used to catalyse the the calvin cycle (light independent stage)
what is the holobiont concept
a theory that highlighs the interconnectedness and mutualistic relationship between the host and its microbial community.
what is one example of a microbiome in humans
the gut
what happens when gut cells are not given fiber
the epithelial cells were not structured cells and they begun to break down
what is the difference between positive feedback and negative feedback loops
Positive feedback loops amplify a response, while negative feedback loops counteract a response to maintain stability in biological systems.
what are the 4 types of chemical signals
autocrine
juxtacrine
paracrine
hormones
what is autocrine
Autocrine refers to a type of signaling where a cell secretes a signaling molecule that acts on the same cell
what is juxtacrine
s to a type of cell signaling in which a molecule on the surface of one cell binds to a receptor on an adjacent cell, transmitting a signal between the two cells.
what is paracrine
signals that affect nearby cells
what is a hormone
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands that regulate various physiological processes in the body.
what are the steps for cell signalling
- signal is secretes
- signals enters the circulatory system
- signal enters the target cell
what are the requirements for a cell to respond to a signal
a cell must have a specific receptor to detect the signal The receptor and the signal must be complimentary
what is a signal transduction pathway
a sequence of events that lead to the response
what are the 2 locations of the cell for receptors
intracellular- located within the cell
extracelluar- large or polar ligards that bind to the cell membrane receptors (located within the cell memebrane)
what do ion channel receptors do
allow ions to enter or leave the cell
what can a cell do in-response to a signal
-open a ion channel
- change enzyme activity
- undergo gene expression
