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Biology: lifes machinary > module 2: maintaining life > Flashcards

module 2: maintaining life Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what infomation do genes carry

A

genes carry genetic information that have the information to make proteins

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2
Q

how many amino acids are proteins made up of

A

20

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3
Q

how is the genetic code universal

A

almost all organisms have the have same genetic code

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4
Q

how is the genetic code degenerate

A

different codons can code for the same amini acids

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5
Q

what do stop codons do

A

terminate protein synthesis

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6
Q

what is the start codon

A

AUG

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7
Q

what are the steps for transcription

A
  • sigma factors of RNA polymerase bind to the promotor sequence on the DNA and RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA molecule
  • RNA polymerase moves in a 5’ to 3’ direction synthesising an mRNA strand complementary to the DNA strand
  • when RNA polymerase reaches the termination sequence, RNA polymerase detaches
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8
Q

what is the enzyme that is used to charge tRNA with amino acids

A

aminoacyl-synthase

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9
Q

what are the 3 sites of the ribosome

A

-acceptor site (A)- where tRNA molecule approches
- peptidyl Site (p)- bonding site
-exit site (E)- tRNA molcule is released

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10
Q

what is the initiation stage for translation

A

-a small subunit binds to the recognition site on mRNA
- met binds to the initation sequence and then the large subunit binds to create the initiation complex.

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11
Q

what is the elongation stage for translation

A

-codon recognition
- peptide bond formation through a condesation reaction
-tRNA carrying another amino acids approaches the A site
- a peptide bond is formed between the 2 amino acids
- the ribosome moves one codon down and another amino acids bonds to the A site
- this process is continued

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12
Q

what is the termination satge for translation

A
  • a termination sequence reaches the A site elongation is terminated
    -chain is released from the ribosome
  • the large and small subunits detach
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13
Q

what is positive gene regulation

A

when a regulatory protein binds to the promotor region to facilitate the production of mRNA

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14
Q

what is negative gene regulation

A

the binding of regulatory proteins to the promoter that prevents transcription

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15
Q

can energy be created or destroyed

A

no

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16
Q

where do decomposers get their energy from

A

the sun

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17
Q

what is the formular for delta G

A

delta G = enrgy from products - energy from reactions
ΔG=G final–G initial
​

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18
Q

what is an exergonic reaction

A

a reaction where energy is released

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19
Q

what is an endogonic reaction

A

a reaction where energy is adsorbed

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20
Q

what is a catabolic reaction

A

a reaction where large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules

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21
Q

what is an anabolic reaction

A

a reaction where smaller molecules are built into larger molecules

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22
Q

what is the activation energy for a chemical reaction

A

the energy required to start a chemical reaction

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23
Q

what are enzymes

A

biological catalysts that increase the rate of reactions of reactions where they are specific for

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24
Q

what happens when a substrate binds to an enzyme

A

substrate binds to the enzyme, there is a conformational change and the enzyme releases the products

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25
Q

what is gibbs free enrgy

A

amount of energy avaliable to do work (usable enrgy)

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26
Q

what is an exergonic reaction

A

energy is released and the delta G (enthalpy) is negative

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27
Q

what is an endergonic reaction

A

energy is absored into the system and the delta G (enthalpy) is positive

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28
Q

what is a catabolic reaction

A

a reaction that breaks down large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules

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29
Q

is a catabolic reaction exogonic or endogonic

A

exogonic

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30
Q

what is an anabolic reaction

A

a chemical reaction where smaller molecules are build up into larger more complex molecules

31
Q

do anabolic reactions require energy

A

yes they do as they link small molecules together

32
Q

what is the activation energy

A

the energy required to start a chemical reaction

33
Q

what is an enzyme

A

a biological catalyst

34
Q

what is a catalyst

A

a substance that lowers the activation energy and thus speeds up a chemical reaction

35
Q

how do enzymes work

A

by providing an alternative reaction pathway

36
Q

how do enzymes work

A

by providing an alternative reaction pathway

37
Q

are enzymes specific

A

yes they are highly specific

38
Q

are enzymes specific

A

yes they are highly specific

39
Q

what are the 2 things that faciliate enzymes

A
  1. orientation
  2. physcial strain
40
Q

how does the ezymes orientation facilitate an enzyme

A

The substrate must be specific to the enzyme

41
Q

how does physical strain facilitate an enzyme

A
  • Confirmational change in the enzyme
    This forces the reaction
42
Q

what is the equation for cellular respiration

A

Glucose + 6 oxygen —-> 6 carbon dioxide + 6 water + 36-36 energy

43
Q

what are the mian sources of enregy

A
  1. electromatic energy coming from the sun
    chemcial energy stored within the chemical bonds
44
Q

what are the 3 stages of cellular respiration

A

glycolysis
citric acid cycle
electron transport chain

45
Q

what are the stages for glycolysis

A

Starting the Process: a phosphate group is added to activate the glucose

Breaking the Sugar Apart: Glucose-6-phosphate is rearranged and split into two smaller three-carbon molecules

Making Energy: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is converted to pyruvate, producing two ATP molecules and two molecules of a molecule called NADH, which can be used to generate more ATP.

46
Q

what is the diagram for the citric acid cycle

A
47
Q

what is the diagram for glycolysis, link reaction and the citric acid cycle

A
48
Q

where does the citric acid cycle take place

A

mitrocondria matrix

49
Q

where does glycolysis take place

A

cytoplasm of the cell

50
Q

where does the electron transport chain take place

A

in the mitrocondria christae

51
Q

what are the steps for the ETC

A

Energy-carrying molecules (NADH and FADH2) donate electrons to a chain of proteins in the inner membrane.

The electrons move down the chain, releasing energy that pumps hydrogen ions (protons) from the inside of the mitochondria to the outside, creating a concentration gradient.

The final protein in the chain passes the electrons to oxygen, which combines with protons to form water.

The concentration gradient created by the movement of protons back into the mitochondria through a protein called ATP synthase powers the production of ATP.

52
Q

where does photosynthesis take place

A

the the chloroplasts

53
Q

what are the 2 stages of photosynthesis

A
  1. light dependent stage
  2. light independent stage
54
Q

what happens in the light reaction

A

Light is absorbed by pigments in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts.

The absorbed light excites electrons in chlorophyll, which are then passed down a chain of proteins.

This movement of electrons creates a gradient that drives the production of ATP and NADPH.

ATP and NADPH are used in the light-independent reactions to produce sugars.

55
Q

what are the steps for the light dependent reaction or the calvin cycle (not explained)

A
  1. carbon fixation
  2. reduction
  3. regeneration
56
Q

what happens at carbon fixation

A

Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air is incorporated into an organic molecule called ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) by an enzyme called RuBisCO. This reaction results in the formation of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).

57
Q

what happens at reduction

A

The energy from ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions is used to convert 3-PGA to a sugar called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). Some G3P molecules are used to make glucose or other sugars, while others are recycled to regenerate RuBP.

58
Q

what happens at regenderation

A

The remaining G3P molecules are used to regenerate RuBP through a series of reactions that require ATP.

59
Q

what is rubisco (RuBisCo)

A

an enzyme used to catalyse the the calvin cycle (light independent stage)

60
Q

what is the holobiont concept

A

a theory that highlighs the interconnectedness and mutualistic relationship between the host and its microbial community.

61
Q

what is one example of a microbiome in humans

A

the gut

62
Q

what happens when gut cells are not given fiber

A

the epithelial cells were not structured cells and they begun to break down

63
Q

what is the difference between positive feedback and negative feedback loops

A

Positive feedback loops amplify a response, while negative feedback loops counteract a response to maintain stability in biological systems.

64
Q

what are the 4 types of chemical signals

A

autocrine
juxtacrine
paracrine
hormones

65
Q

what is autocrine

A

Autocrine refers to a type of signaling where a cell secretes a signaling molecule that acts on the same cell

66
Q

what is juxtacrine

A

s to a type of cell signaling in which a molecule on the surface of one cell binds to a receptor on an adjacent cell, transmitting a signal between the two cells.

67
Q

what is paracrine

A

signals that affect nearby cells

68
Q

what is a hormone

A

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands that regulate various physiological processes in the body.

69
Q

what are the steps for cell signalling

A
  1. signal is secretes
  2. signals enters the circulatory system
  3. signal enters the target cell
70
Q

what are the requirements for a cell to respond to a signal

A

a cell must have a specific receptor to detect the signal The receptor and the signal must be complimentary

71
Q

what is a signal transduction pathway

A

a sequence of events that lead to the response

72
Q

what are the 2 locations of the cell for receptors

A

intracellular- located within the cell
extracelluar- large or polar ligards that bind to the cell membrane receptors (located within the cell memebrane)

73
Q

what do ion channel receptors do

A

allow ions to enter or leave the cell

74
Q

what can a cell do in-response to a signal

A

-open a ion channel
- change enzyme activity
- undergo gene expression

Biology: lifes machinary (7 decks)

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