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BIOL 1593 - Anatomy & Physiology > Module 3: Cells > Flashcards

Module 3: Cells Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 principal parts of the cell?

A
  1. Plasma
  2. Cytoplasm
    • Cytosol
    • Organelles
  3. Nucleus
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2
Q

Who were:

  • Robert Hooke
  • Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
A

Robert Hooke: The first person to name cells in 1665.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek: The first person to observe living and moving cells under a microscope.

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3
Q

Cell membrane

A

Membrane surrounding all animal cells. It is composed of a lipid bilayer interspersed with various molecules.

Also called a plasma membrane.

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4
Q

Amphipathic molecule

A

A molecule that contains both a hydrophilic and hydrophobic region.

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5
Q

Describe a phospholipid molecule

A

A single phospholipid molecule has a phosphate group on one end (the “head”) and two side-by-side chains of fatty acids that make up the lipid “tails.”

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6
Q

Interstitial fluid (IF)

A

Extracellular fluid not contained within blood vessels.

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7
Q

Peripheral protein
Integral protein
Channel protein
Carrier protein

A

Peripheral protein: protein in the mebrane of the cell that does not span the width of the lipid bilayer but is attached peripherally to membrane components.

Integral protein: protein in the membrane of the cell that spans the entire width of the lipid bilayer.

Channel protein: an integral protein that selectively allows particular molecules to pass in and out of the cell.

Carrier protein: an even more selective protein that often only allows one particular type of molecule to cross.

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8
Q

Receptor

Ligand

A

Receptor: a protein molecule that contains a binding site for another specific molecule.

Ligand: molecule that binds to and activates a receptor.

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9
Q

Glycoprotein

A

Protein that has one or more carbohydrates attached.

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10
Q

Glycocalyx

A

Coating of sugar molecules that surrounds the cell membrane.

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11
Q

Selective permeability

A

Feature of any barrier that allows certain substances to cross but not others.

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12
Q

Passive transport

Active transport

A

Passive transport: form of transport across cell membrane that does not require input of cellular energy.

Active transport: Form of transport across cell membrane that requires input of cellular energy.
-Uses energy from ATP.

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13
Q

Concentration gradient

A

Differences in the concentration of a substance between two regions.

Molecules will spread from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated until they are evenly distributed in a space (moving down their concentration gradient).

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14
Q

Diffusion

A

Movement of a substance from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration.

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15
Q

Simple diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

A

Simple diffusion: a form of passive transport where molecules move across a cell membrane from the side where they are more concentrated to the side where they are less concentrated.
-Small polar molecules.

Facilitated diffusion: diffusion of a substance with the aid of a membrane protein.

  • Large polar/ionic molecules.
  • Charged atoms/molecules of any size.
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16
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water molecules down their concentration gradient across a selectively permeable membrane.

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17
Q

Isotonic

A

Describes a solution concentration that is the same as a reference concentration (example: concentration of water molecules is the same inside and outside the cell).

“Equal tension”

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18
Q

Hypertonic

Hypotonic

A

Hypertonic: A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than another solution.
-Water molecules tend to diffuse into this, leaving the cell to shrivel.

Hypotonic: A solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than another solution.
-Water molecules tend to diffuse out of this, causing the cell to take on too much water and swell.

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19
Q

What are the 3 types of extracellular fluid?

A
  1. Interstitial
  2. Plasma
  3. Lymph
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20
Q

Transport processes are classified according to what 2 criteria?

A
  1. Active or passive

2. Vesicular

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21
Q

What is another mechanism besides diffusion to passively transport materials between compartments?

A

Filtration, which uses a hydrostatic pressure gradient that pushes the fluid from a higher pressure area to a lower pressure area.

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22
Q

What are 5 factors that influence diffusion?

A
  1. Steepness of the concentration gradient.
  2. Temperature.
  3. Size or mass of the diffusing substance.
  4. Surface area.
  5. Diffusion distance.
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23
Q

Sodium-potassium pump

Na+/K+ ATP-ase

A

Membrane-embedded protein pump that uses ATP to move Na+ (x3) out of a cell and K+ (x2) into a cell.

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24
Q

Electrical gradient

A

A difference in electrical charge across a space.

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25
Q

Symporters

Antiporters

A

Symporters: secondary active transporters that move two substances in the same direction.
-Example: sodium-glucose symporter.

Antiporters: secondary active transporters that move two substances in opposite directions.
-Example: sodium-hydrogen ion antiporter.

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26
Q 
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
A

Endocytosis: import of material into a cell by formation of a membrane-bound vesicle.

Exocytosis: export of a material out of a cell by formation of a membrane-bound vesicle.

Phagocytosis: the endocytosis of large particles.

Pinocytosis: the endocytosis of fluid.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis: endocytosis of ligands attached to membrane-bound receptors.
-Regulates the endocytosis of specific substances.

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27
Q

Vesicle
Organelle
Nucleus

A

Vesicle: Membranous sac that contains materials within or outside of the cell.

Organelle: Membrane-enclosed specialized structures that perform specific functions within the cell.

Nucleus: A cell’s central organelle. The “control centre” of the cell that contains DNA.

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28
Q

Cytoplasm

Cytosol

A

Cytoplasm: Intracellular material between the membrane and nucleus, mainly consisting of cytosol.

Cytosol: Clear, semi-fluid medium of the cytoplasm. Made up of mostly water, plus proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and inorganic substances.

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29
Q

What are the 3 components of the endomembrane system?

A
  1. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
  2. Golgi apparatus.
  3. Vesicles.
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30
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Cellular organelle that consists of interconnected membrane-bound tubules, providing passages throughout the cell that function in transporting, synthesizing, and storing materials.

It can be rough (with ribosomes) or smooth (without ribosomes).

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31
Q

Ribosome

A

Cellular organelle that functions in protein synthesis. It is composed of two ribosomal RNA subunits that wrap around mRNA to start the process of translation, followed by protein synthesis.

Some are free, some are bound.

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32
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Cellular organelle formed by a series of flattened membrane-bound sacs that functions in protein modification, tagging, packaging and transport.

It is the “post office” for products that come from the rough ER.

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33
Q

Lysosome

A

Membrane-bound organelle originating from the Golgi Apparatus. It contains enzymes that break down and digest unneeded cellular components, such as a damaged organelle.

A “wrecking crew.”

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34
Q

Autophagy

Autolysis

A

Autophagy: lysosomal breakdown of a cell’s own components (the process of a cell digesting its own structures).

Autolysis: Breakdown of cells by their own enzymatic action (a controlled self-destruction).

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35
Q

Mitochondrion

A

One of the cellular organelles bound by a double lipid bilayer that function primarily in the production of cellular energy (via ATP).

The “energy transformer” of the cell.

36
Q

Cristae

A

Folded inner membrane of mitochondria where a series of proteins, enzymes, and other molecules perform the biochemical reactions of cellular respiration.

37
Q

Peroxisome

A

Membrane-bound organelle that contains enzymes primarily responsible for destroying harmful substances.

38
Q

Reactive oxygen species

A

A group of extremely reactive peroxides and oxygen-containing radicals that may contribute to cellular damage.

39
Q

Oxidative stress

A

Damage to cellular components caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS).

40
Q

Mutation

A

Change in the nucleotide sequence in a gene within a cell’s DNA.

41
Q

What are some diseases believed to be triggered or exacerbated by ROS?

A
  • Alzheimer’s
  • Parkinson’s
  • Diabetes
  • Arthritis
  • Cardiovascular diseases
  • Huntington’s
  • Schitzophrenia
42
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

The “skeleton” of a cell formed by rod-like proteins that support the cell’s shape and provide locomotive abilities (among other functions).

43
Q

The cytoskeleton forms a complex thread-like network of 3 kinds of protein-based filaments. What are they?

A
  1. Microfilaments.
  2. Intermediate filaments.
  3. Microtubules.
44
Q

Microtubule
Intermediate filaments
Microfilaments

A

Microtubule: the thickest of the cytoskeletal filaments, they maintain cell shape and structure, help resist compression of the cell, and play a role in positioning the organelles within the cell.. (They make up cilia and flagella)

Intermediate filaments: type of cytoskeletal filament made of keratin which plays a role in resisting cellular tension.

Microfilaments: thinnest of the cytoskeletal filaments and composed of actin subunits that function in muscle contraction and cellular structural support.

45
Q

Cilia

Flagellum

A

Cilia move waste materials through the airways and egg cells from the ovaries to the uterus.

Flagellum are appendages larger than cilia and are specialized for cell locomotion.
-The only flagellated cell in humans is the sperm cell.

46
Q

What is an important function of microtubules?

A

To set paths that genetic material can be pulled along (via ATP) during cell division.

This ensures that each new daughter cell receives the appropriate set of chromosomes.

47
Q

Centriole

A

Small, self-replicating organelle that provides the origin for microtubule growth and moves DNA during cell division.

48
Q

Centrosomes

Proteasome

A

Centrosomes: dense areas of cytoplasm that contain the centrioles. They serve as centres for organizing microtubules in interphase cells and the mitotic spindle during cell division.

Proteasome: a tiny membrane-bound sac that contains protease enzymes, which are able to cut proteins.

49
Q

Nuclear envelope

A

Membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

Consists of a double lipid bilayer (two adjacent lipid bilayer with a thin fluid space between them).

50
Q

Nuclear pore

A

One of the small protein-lined openings found scattered throughout the nuclear envelope.

Tiny passageway for proteins, RNA, and solutes between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

It is lined with proteins called pore complexes that regulate the passages of materials in and out of the nucleus.

51
Q

Nucleolus

A

Small region of the nucleus responsible for manufacturing the RNA necessary for construction of ribosomes.

52
Q

Chromatin
Histone
Nucleosome
Chromosome

A

Chromatin: Substance consisting of DNA and associated proteins.

Histone: Family of proteins that associate with DNA in the nucleus to form chromatin.

Nucleosome: Unit of chromatin consisting of a DNA strand wrapped around histone proteins.

Chromosome: Condensed version of chromatin.

53
Q

How many chromosomes do humans have?

A

46 arranged in 23 pairs

54
Q

DNA replication

A

The process of copying DNA that occurs before a cell division can take place.

55
Q

Helicase

A

Enzyme that functions to separate the two DNA strands of a double helix during DNA replication.

56
Q

What are the 3 stages of DNA replication?

A

Stage 1: Initiation

  • Two complimentary strands are separated.
  • Special enzymes untwist and separate strands.

Stage 2: Elongation

  • Each strand becomes a template along which a new complimentary strand is built.
  • DNA polymerase brings in the correct bases to compliment the template strand, synthesizing a new strand base by base.

Stage 3: Termination
-DNA replication is stopped and the two new identical DNA molecules are complete.

57
Q

DNA polymerase

RNA polymerase

A

DNA polymerase: An enzyme that functions in adding new nucleotides to a growing strand of DNA during replication.

RNA polymerase: Enzyme that adds new nucleotides to a growing strand of RNA.

58
Q

How is DNA replication semiconservative?

A

Half the original DNA molecule is conserved in each new DNA molecule.

59
Q

Proteome

A

Full complement of proteins produced by a cell (determined by the cell’s specific gene expression).

60
Q

Gene

A

Functional length of DNA that provides the genetic information necessary to build a protein.

61
Q

Gene expression

A

Active interpretation of the information coded in a gene to produce a functional gene product.

Dictates the structure and function of a cell by determining which proteins are made.

62
Q

Triplet

Codon

Anticodon

A

Triplet: Consecutive sequence of 3 nucleotides (trinucleotide) on a DNA molecule that, when transcribed into an mRNA codon, corresponds to a particular amino acid.

Codon: Consecutive sequence of trinucleotides on an mRNA molecule that corresponds to a specific amino acid.

Anticodon: Consecutive sequence of 3 nucleotides on a tRNA molecule that is complimentary to a specific mRNA codon.

63
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

Single-stranded nucleotide molecule that serves as an intermediate in the genetic code between DNA and protein.

64
Q

Transcription

Translation

A

Transcription: Process of producing an mRNA molecule that is complementary to a particular gene of DNA.

Translation: Process of producing a protein from the nucleotide sequence of an mRNA transcript.
-The process of synthesizing a polypeptide.

65
Q

What are the 3 stages of transcription?

A
  1. Initiation - promoter triggers the start.
  2. Elongation - RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA segment, builds new mRNA strand from coding strand.
  3. Termination - one of the triplets codes a “stop” signal.
66
Q

Promoter

A

Region of DNA that signals transcription to begin at that site within the gene.

67
Q

Splicing

A

The process of modifying a pre-mRNA transcript by removing certain (typically non-coding) regions.

68
Q

Spliceosome
Intron
Exon

A

Spliceosome: Complex of enzymes that serves to splice out the introns of a pre-mRNA transcript.

Intron: Non-coding regions of a pre-mRNA transcript that may be removed during splicing.

Exon: A segment of RNA that remains after splicing.

69
Q

Polypeptide

A

Chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

70
Q

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): RNA that makes up the subunits of a ribosome.

Transfer RNA (tRNA): Molecules of RNA that serve to bring amino acids to a growing polypeptide strand and properly place them into the sequence. 
 -Builds a polypeptide chain one amino acid at a time.
71
Q

What is the sequence of translation?

A
  1. rRNA and proteins form ribosomes.
  2. Specific amino acids attach to molecules of tRNA. Another portion of the tRNA has a triplet of nitrogenous bases called an anticodon.
  3. tRNA delivers a specific amino acid to the codon; the ribosome moves along an mRNA strand as amino acids are joined to form a growing polypeptide.
72
Q

Polyribosome

A

A string of ribosomes translating a single mRNA strand.

73
Q

Somatic cell

A

All cells of the body excluding gamete cells (reproductive cells).

74
Q

Homologous chromosomes

Sister chromatids

A

Homologous chromosomes: the two copies of each chromosome that somatic cells contain (one copy from each parent).

Sister chromatids: one of a pair of identical chromosomes, formed during DNA replication (each cell has 2 of these).

75
Q

Diploid

A

Condition marked by the presence of a double complement of genetic material.

Two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent.

76
Q

Cell cycle

Interphase

A

Cell cycle: Life cycle of a single cell, from its birth until its division into two new daughter cells.

Interphase: Entire life cycle of the cell, excluding mitosis.
-The period of the cell cycle during which the cell is not dividing.

77
Q

Mitosis
Mitotic phase
Cytokinesis

A

Mitosis: Division fo genetic material, during which the cell nucleus breaks down and 2 new, fully functional, nuclei are formed.

Mitotic phase: Phase of the cell cycle in which a cell undergoes mitosis.
-Usually takes 1-2 hours.

Cytokinesis: Final stage in cell division, where the cytoplasm divides to form two separate daughter cells.

78
Q

Interphase is further divided into which 3 phases?

A

G1 (gap 1) phase: first phase of the cell cycle after a new cell is born.

S (synthesis) phase: stage of the cell cycle during which DNA replication occurs.

G2 (gap 2) phase: third phase of the cell cycle after the DNA synthesis phase.

79
Q

G0 phase

A

Phase of the cell cycle characterised by long or permanent periods where the cell does not move forward into the DNA synthesis phase.

The “resting” phase. It is usually entered from the G1 phase.

80
Q

Cells vary the most in their duration of which phase of the cell cycle?

A

G1 phase.

They may spend a couple of hours here, or many days.

81
Q

Centromere

A

The structure that attaches one sister chromatid to another.

A human cell has 92 during this stage (46 x 2).

82
Q

Mitosis is divided into which 4 stages after the interphase?

A
  1. Prophase: breakdown of the nuclear envelope and condensing of the chromatin to form chromosomes.
  2. Metaphase: linear alignment of sister chromatids in the center of the cell.
  3. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate into two new nuclear regions of a dividing cell.
  4. Telophase: formation of two new daughter nuclei.
    * This is then followed by cytokinesis.
83
Q

Mitotic spindle

A

Network of microtubules, originating from centrioles, that arranges and pulls apart chromosomes during mitosis.

84
Q

Kinetochore

A

Region of a centromere where microtubules attach to a pair of sister chromatids.

85
Q

Cleavage furrow

A

Contractile ring that forms around a cell during cytokinesis that pinches the cell into two halves.

Made up of microfilaments.

BIOL 1593 - Anatomy & Physiology (5 decks)

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