Module 2

Question 1

What is the difference between Teleological and Deontological approaches?

Answer 1

• Ancient Greek ethics roots: Ethics has roots in ancient greek philosophy.
  
  • Socrates: Rational reflection and good to community
  • Plato: Virtue ethics and phronesis (practical wisdom)
  • Aristotle: intellectual virtues and good character lead to ‘Eudaimonia’
• Teleology (Consequentialism approach): actions are judged by their outcomes
  
  • eg utilitarianism ​
• Deontology (Intention-based approach): actions are judged by adherence to duty or principles
  
  • eg Kant, religion, professional obligations
  • Inherent right and worng

Question 2

What does Taylor (2015) outline as the pros and cons of the three main streams of ethical theory?

Answer 2

• Consequentialism/Utilitarianism (or rule-based consequentialism) eg Mill
  
  • Consequences (or value of consequences) may be unclear
  • Action could produce both good and bad effects (for same or different people)
  • Allows morally permissable murder
• Deontology: Required to fulfil ethical obligations eg Kant’s categorical imperatives.
  
  • Kant; no one can be used as a tool (even to help)
  • ​Hugely rigid/Permits no exceptions (Kant universality)
  • Must consider consequences to rank rules
• Virtue Ethics: Increase morality will naturally increase moral action eg Aristotle.
  
  • Practical Wisdom (need for growth and active reasoning) Eudamonia (human flourishing)
  • No real guide

Question 3

What are Forsyth’s four ethical ideologies?

Answer 3

• Four categories across two dimensions:
  
  • Idealism: acceptance of harm
  • Relativism: acceptance of moral absolutes
• Situationalism: High idealism, High relativism
  
  • Reject absolute moral rules, believe good consequences can be obtained
• Absolutism: High idealism, Low relativism
  
  • Accept absolute moral rules, good consequences can be realised
• Subjectivism: Low idealism, High relativism
  
  • Reject moral absolutes, make judgements based on personal feelings
• Exceptionalism: Low idealism, Low relativism
  
  • ​Accept moral absolutes as desirable, but exceptions are permissable

Question 4

What were the results of Hadjistavropoulos et als study on psychologists and physicians ethical outlook?

Answer 4

• Psych’s less relativistic than physicians (but not much)
• Psychologists equally idealistic as physicians
• More psychologists were absolutists and more physicians were situationists
• Psychologists were more influenced by their code of ethics and less by family views, religious background, and peer attitudes
• There were no significant differences based on sex

Question 5

What is Ross’s Prima Facie Duty Theory?

Answer 5

• Moral intuitions are judgements about how an individual should act in a particular situation
• Seven duties form basis of relationship between psychologist and client
  
  • Fidelity, Reparation, Gratitude, Justice, Beneficience, Non-maleficience, Self-improvement

Question 6

What behaviours did Sullivan (2002) find were universally agreed upon as ethical and unethical?

Answer 6

• Universal (>90% agreement) compared to Pope’s study
• Ethical:
  
  • Using clients first name
  • Having them use your first name
  • Accepting handshakes
• Unethical:
  
  • Erotic or sexual interactions with client
  • Borrowing money from client
  • Discussing client by name with friends or to a class
  • Disrobing in front of client
  • Signing off on hours that havent been done
  • Conducting therapy while drunk

Question 7

What behaviours did Sullivan identify as having a mismatch being rates being done and ethical judgement?

Answer 7

• Unquestionably unethical but not rare
  
  • Signing for hours supervised not earned
  • Disclosing client’s name to a class
• ​Behaviour rare but not unquestionably unethical
  
  • Telling a client: I am sexually attracted to you
  • Lending money to a client
  • Kissing a client
  • Giving a gift over $50 to a client
  • Accepting aclient’s invitation to a party
  • Unintentionally disclosing confidential data
  • Providing services outside area of competence
  • Engaging in a sexual fantasy about aclient
• Common but not unquestionably ethical
  
  • ​Using self-disclosure as a therapy technique
• ​Unquestionably ethical but not common
  
  • Nil

Question 8

What considerations did Sullivan (2002) note as caveats to result interpretation?

Answer 8

• No measure of why behaviours were rated as ethical/unethical
• Psychologists who did not respond to survey may have differing opinions
  
  • Half sample from SA or WA
  • Majority were clinical or counselling
• Possible discrepancy between reported behaviour and actual behaviour
• Temporal disparity when comparing to the american sample
• Results provide a normative view of ethical behaviour (what does everyone else do/think)

Question 9

What differences did Henry (2005) find compared to Pope (1987) and Sullivan (2002)?

Answer 9

• Henry surveyed fourth year psychology students not registered psychologists
• Students were far more likely to rate breaking confidentiality as ethical than practicing psychologists (when client or other is at risk)
• Students more likely to rate behaviours as unquestionable unethical (kissing a client, telling a client you are attracted to them, providing services outside your expertise)

Question 10

What did Pope (1987) find were the most matched and unmatched behaviours?

Answer 10

• Mismatched - Common but unethical
  
  • Providing services outside competence
  • Unintentionally disclosing data
  • Treating homosexuality as pathological
  • Providing therapy to an employee
• Matched - Rare and unethical
  
  • Sexual activity with client
  • Erotic activity with client
  • Disrobing in front of client
  • Discussing a client by name in front of friends

Question 11

According to Dr White, what are the six components of moral intensity used to characterise ethical issues?

Answer 11

• Moral Intensity
  
  1. Magnitude of consequences; sum of harm, benefits
  2. Social consensus; level of agreement eg tax avoidance vs tax minimisation
  3. Probability of effect; probability event will act occur x cause anticipated effect
  4. Temporary immediacy; time between action and its consequences occuring
  5. Proximity;‘nearness’ of person affected (stranger vs family)
  6. Concentration of effect; inverse of # people affected by magnitude of act. Affects fewer people more significantly
• Responsibility: How much responsibility will people assume
  
  • ​Proximity
  • Temporal immediacy
  • Probability

Question 12

What different types of ethical dilemmas may be experienced by psychologists?

Answer 12

• Ethical Dilemmas; Clash of two or more ethical principles
  
  • Do no harm vs euthanasia
  • Non-disclosure vs warning
• Mixed Dilemmas; Clash of ethics with non-ethics
  
  • eg act against ethics in order to keep job
• Difficult to judge;
  
  • Contingency fees for forensic work
  • Providing advice on tv

Question 13

According to Valasquez et al what are the 5 main philosophical approaches to ethical dilemmas?

Answer 13

• Utilitarianism; Take the action that results in the greatest good and least harm.
  
  • Key theorists Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
  • Q: what action does the most good/least harm?
• Rights Approach; People are not objects to be manipulated and have fundamental moral rights
  
  • Key theorists Kant
  • Right to truth, Right of privacy, Right to safety etc
  • Q: What action best respects the rights of the affected parties?
• Fairness or Justice Approach; Show no favouritism or discimination
  
  • ​Key theorist; Aristotle/ancient greeks
  • Q: What actions treats everyone equally?
• Common Good Approach; What is good for the community is good for the individual. Focus on benefits to all.
  
  • ​Theorists; Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Rowles
  • Q: What action advances the common good?
• Virtue Approach; Virtues are like habits, virtuous people are more likely to act ethically.
  
  • ​Q: What action develops moral virtues?

Question 14

What is May’s Five Question ethical decision making model?

Answer 14

• May (1980) suggested five questions to ask yourself when deliberating over an ethical dilemma.

1. What is going on in the case?
2. By what criteria should decisions be made?
3. Who should decide?
4. For whose benefit does the professional act?
5. How should the professional decide and act?

Question 15

What is Rest’s Four Component Model of Morality?

Answer 15

• Based on stages of development, 6 stages, in 3 ages
• Preconventional: Up to the Age of 9
  
  • Punishment/obedience; right and wrong determined by punishment
  • Instrumental/relativist; right and wrong determined by what is rewarded (selfishness)
• Conventional: Most adolescents and adults
  
  • Interpersonal concordance; Conformity, being good is what pleases others
  • Law and order; Being good is doing your duty to society (most people stop here)
• Postconventional: 10 to 15% of the over 20s
  
  • Social Contact; Good is determined by personal value system, although can be overidden by laws
  • Universal ethical principle; live in accordance with moral principles which override laws

Question 16

According to Rest (1984) what are the four dimensions of ethical decision making?

Answer 16

• Moral sensitivity: Ability to recognise a situation actually raises a moral issue and chosen actions may have potential to harm and/or benefit another person.
• Moral judgment/evaluation Requires a level of reasoning when considering the possible choices of action and their potential consequences.
• Moral motivation/intention creates the decision for action, based on values (e.g. personal power versus benefit to another).
• Moral courage/action refers to a psychologist’s manifest behaviour (action) in context. Rest suggested that the order is not temporal and that each component may influence the others.

Question 17

What are Gottleib’s (1986) 3-dimensions of ethical decision making?

Answer 17

• Power; impact or influence of action
  
  • Low - a psychologist gives a speech,
  • High - a therapist’s influence over someone in long-term, insight-oriented psychotherapy.
• Duration of the Relationship assumes power increases over time
  
  • Low – brief intervention to high - a student and teacher.
• Clarity of Termination – likelihood that the client and psychologist will have further professional contact
  
  • Low - a psychological assessment of a job applicant, to high - a family psychologist who assumes that their obligation is ongoing.
    *

Question 18

What is the QLD Gov’s 6 step Reflect process?

Answer 18

• Recognise the issue: What is the problem?
• Examine the situation: Context, confounding factors, other relevant information
• Find facts and evidence: Code of ethics, other information
• Liaise and consult: is there a precedent, expert opinions
• Evaluate the options: What risks, requirements,
• Come to a decision: Do i have permission, record actions
• Take time to reflect: happy with decision?

Question 19

What is Koocher and Keith-Speigel’s (2008) 8 step EDDM?

Answer 19

1. Determine whether case involves ethics (What type of dilemma? Ethical, moral, law) Consult with colleagues if needed
2. Consult guidelines (Code of ethics, and guidelines, relevant laws)
3. Pause to consider all factors that may be influencing you (personal experiences, values, beliefs, culture, characteristics)
4. Consult colleagues; document conversations, decide Qs to ask, whether to share with client
5. Evaluate rights, responsibilities and vulnerabilities of all parties
6. Generate alternative decisions
7. Enumerate the consequences of each decision
8. Make the decision and act accordingly

Question 20

What four traps does Dr White outline which may impact ethical decision making?

Answer 20

• Commonsense/objectivity trap; belief that common sense solutions are easily found
• Values Trap; Personal values in conflict with professional code
  
  • Refrain from imposing personal values on clients and respect client values
    
    • Be aware of values
    • Discuss with colleagues
    • Engage supervision if at risk
• Circumstantiality trap; Belief what is right and wrong depends on circumstances
• Who will benefit trap; Ethical dilemmas often result in “taking sides”

Question 21

What is the role of affect in EDDM and how can we best evaluate the rationale behind a EDDM?

Answer 21

• Role of affect: Ethical dilemmas involve tension between rationality and emotion
  
  • Affect enabled cognitive flexibility
  • Affect is both catalyst and bi-product of EDDM
  • Emotions should be acknowledged and used in EDDM rather than ignored.
• Evaluating the rationale:
  
  • Is reasoning clearly defined, relevant, and coherent?
  • Are there any flaws in reasoning?
  • Are proposed actions reasonable?
  • Have all factors been considered?
  • Are underlying ethical factors understood?

Question 22

Why is personal insight important for psychologists?

Answer 22

• Corey (1996): Need to be aware of own needs in order to avoid putting them onto the client
  
  • Knowing own beliefs, needs, etc to avoid imposing on client relationship
  • Virtue ethics approach “self-awareness”
• Developing self insight: 75% of postgrad psyc students have had some therapy.
  
  • Young’s Schemas: unrelenting standards, self-sacrifice, and entitlement are very common among mental health workers

Question 23

What are the three different styles of perfectionism common in mental health professionals?

Answer 23

• Self-oriented perfectionism setting and seeking high self-standards of performance
  
  • e.g., “I should be perfect in everything I do”
  • Greater risk of burnout
• Other-oriented perfectionism expecting that others should or would be perfect in their performance
  
  • e.g. “If I ask someone to do something, I expect it to be done flawlessly”
  • Likely to be struggle in colleague relationships
• Socially prescribed perfectionism believing that others expect perfection from him or her
  
  • e.g., “The people around me expect me to succeed at everything I do”
  • ​Feeling personally responsible for client failures