Module 2

Question 1

Incidence

Answer 1

Number of new cases of disease that develop in an at risk population during a specified period of time, measured as a rate

Question 2

Prevalence

Answer 2

Number of cases of a disease out of total population during a period of time, measured as a proportion

Question 3

2 x 2 table

Answer 3

Categorizes people based on disease and expose your status. Two columns are disease and not disease, two rows are exposed and not exposed

Question 4

Health equity

Answer 4

The attainment of the highest level of health for all people. Relates to things that are controllable

Question 5

social determinants of health examples

Answer 5

Socio economic status, housing, transportation, education, Access to medical care

Question 6

Context as related to study design

Answer 6

What or who the study is about, the population or who is represented by the Study

If not considered, could create a study that is unethical such as for people that cannot afford a particular treatment. Another issue could be the study could be conducted in an area where a particular disease is not relevant

Question 7

Review or meta-analysis

Answer 7

Synthesizing existing. Knowledge

Question 8

Case series

Answer 8

Describe a group of individuals with a disease

Question 9

Experimental study or randomized controlled trial

Answer 9

Compare outcomes in participants assigned to an intervention and control group

Question 10

Qualitative study

Answer 10

Seek to understand how individuals and communities perceive and make sense of the works and their experiences

Question 11

Retrospective Study cohort

Answer 11

Starting a study with people that already have a disease or condition and looking to the past for data and exposure history, we can learn what exposures may be related to a disease

Good if disease has long induction in latency., A historical exposure, and less expensive and less time than a prospective

Question 12

Prospective Study cohort

Answer 12

Following study participants into the future, can learn about the latency. And progression of disease as well as Time of death

Good if disease has short induction in latency. And a current exposure, high-quality data

Question 13

Population for a study, outer circle to inner circle

Answer 13

Starting with outer circle

1. Target population, the general population that the study seeks to understand
2. Source population, the specific individuals from which a representative sample will be drawn
3. Sample population, individuals asked to participate
4. Study population, eligible participants

Question 14

Ecological study

Answer 14

Examine relationship between exposure and disease with population level data rather than individual level data. Studies groups that are usually defined by place, time or a combination of the two.

Pros are low cost and wide range of exposure level
Cons are ecological fallacy and confounding variable’s

Question 15

Cross-sectional studies

Answer 15

Relationship between disease and current exposure level in a defined population at Single point in time . A snapshot. Often used for public health planning and work place settings

Pros are generalizable and low-cost
Cons are cannot infer what came first, the exposure or the disease? And these studies usually identify those who have the disease for a long duration, because those who quickly die or a cover or not likely to be identified

Question 16

Ecological fallacy

Answer 16

The assumption that results of an ecological study can be used to make conclusions on the individual basis

We cannot’s necessarily infer a relationship observed on the group level to the individual level

Question 17

Case control study

Answer 17

Compare exposure history is in people with disease, cases, and people without diseases, controls.

Use 2 x 2 table for this and odds ratio

Incidence in exposed / incidence in unexposed

Good if a little is known about disease, can evaluate many exposures, good if it disease is rare and has long induction and latency., Good if exposure data is expensive and underline population is dynamic

Question 18

Cohort study

Answer 18

Compare rates of new, incident, disease in people with different exposure histories or follow the population forward in time to look for incident diseases

Cons are expensive and lost to follow up

Good if Little is known about exposure, can evaluate many effects of exposure, good if exposure is rare, and underlying population is fixed

Question 19

Observational

Answer 19

Studies causes, prevention, and treatments for diseases. Investigator passively observes as nature takes it’s course

Question 20

Experimental

Answer 20

Studies preventions and treatments for disease. Investigator actively manipulates which group receives the agent understudy

Question 21

Experimental study

Answer 21

Used to learn about a prevention or treatment method.

Pros, they are high in validity and use of randomization controls for confounding. Good for studying a small effect.

Cons are ethical concerns and cost

Question 22

Observational studies

Answer 22

Cohort, case control

Can study a wider range of exposures, preventions, treatments, and possible causes of disease compared to Experimental. Provide information to explain causes of disease incidence, determinants of disease progression, predict future healthcare needs a population, control disease.

Pros are can be done if trial is not ethical or expensive, good if moderate or large a fact is expected

Cons are investigator is unable to have control over influences or external factors

Question 23

Internal validity of a study

Answer 23

How true the experiment is for the target population. Internal validity must be established before the study results can be generalized to populations be on the study subjects, if it is invalid it cannot be generalized to any population

Question 24

External validity

Answer 24

How will the results of the study can be applied to people outside of the study, it’s generalizability

Question 25

Examples of threats to the validity of experiments

Answer 25

Miss classification, interview bias, healthy workers of fact, recall bias, confounding, Drop outs or withdrawals, selection bias, Differential selection

Question 26

Confounding variable

Answer 26

The mixing of a fax between exposure and the disease, and a third variable which is a confounder. It it distorts the relationship between an exposure and disease.

Question 27

Validity

Answer 27

The lack of bias and confounding

Validity will show underlying relations but needs further analysis in order to determine causal relationships

Question 28

Bias

Answer 28

Systematic error in a design or study that leads to

Question 29

Random error

Answer 29

Probability that the observed result is due to chance, and uncontrollable Force that seems to have no assignable cause

Question 30

Cultural competency

Answer 30

A set of congruent ideas, practices, policies and structures, that come together in a system or agency that allow professionals to work more effectively with members of culturally distinct groups in a manner that values and respects the culture and worldview of those groups

Question 31

Cultural iceberg

Answer 31

Above water is behaviors and practices which we can see and observe, below water are how Cora values are interpreted in reflected in specific situations, and Cora values of what is considered good or bad desirable or unacceptable etc.

Question 32

Relative risk or risk ratio

Answer 32

Relative measure of comparison based on the ratio of two measures of disease frequency, this one is used for cohort study

Rate of exposed / rate of unexposed

Question 33

Case fatality rate

Answer 33

Deaths/ cases of disease for a defined time

Question 34

Cause specific mortality rate

Answer 34

Deaths from a specific cause/ Number in population during time.

Question 35

Crude mortality rate

Answer 35

Total number of deaths all causes/ total population

Question 36

Cumulative incidence

Answer 36

Number of new cases of disease/ total population over Time

Question 37

Incidence rate

Answer 37

Number of new cases of disease/ person time of observation population

Question 38

Infant mortality rate

Answer 38

Number of deaths of infants less than one year/ Live births

Question 39

Risk difference or attributable risk

Answer 39

Risk or rate in exposed minus risk or rate in unexposed

Question 40

Morbidity rate

Answer 40

Number with particular disease/. Population during time.

Question 41

Period Prevalence and point prevalence

Answer 41

Period
Number of existing cases of a disease divided by total population during a period of time

Point
Number of existing cases of disease divided by total population at a particular point in time