Modern➡️c.1800AD-Today Flashcards

1
Q

How did Edward Jenner discover and develop the smallpox vaccine?

A

Jenner observed that milkmaids didn’t catch smallpox if they’d had a milder disease called cowpox.

He gave an 8 year-old boy cowpox, then smallpox to test this theory. He experimented on 23 other cases before declaring that his vaccination immunised against smallpox.

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2
Q

What was the smallpox situation like before Jenner’s vaccination was found?

A
  • 30% fatality rate, those who survived had scars which left people outcasts.
  • In the 18th century, China developed a method known as inoculation.
  • Inoculation became popular in Britain and people made lots of money from the technique.
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3
Q

Why were people opposed to Jenner’s vaccination?

A
  • Attack on liberty➡️When the government made vaccination compulsory in 1853, people felt they were being forced and had lost their freedom.
  • Country doctor➡️Jenner wasn’t respected as he was only a country doctor.
  • Inoculators➡️They made a lot of money from inoculation so did not want to lose business.
  • Fear of the unknown➡️No one could explain why the vaccine worked as there was no knowledge of germs.
  • Religious reasons➡️Some people didn’t want treatment from one of God’s ‘lowly’ creatures, others thought smallpox was sent from God as a punishment.
  • Dangerous➡️Cowpox samples often became contaminated with smallpox, and some people were given smallpox instead of cowpox (so died).
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4
Q

Who was Florence Nightingale?

A

Florence Nightingale was born in 1820 from a wealthy family. She desired to be a nurse, claiming it was a calling from God. She was also inspired by Elizabeth Blackwell, the first US doctor.

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5
Q

What did Florence Nightingale do?

A
  • Nightingale was appointed by the government to lead a team of nurses in the Scutari hospital (during the Crimean war).
  • She was outraged by the conditions in Scutari, but her attempts to improve them were resisted by the army until Nightingale spoke to John Delaney at the Times.
  • Nightingale improved sanitation, with clean bandages/towels and regulated the conduct of nurses.
  • As a result, death rates fell from 42% to 2% within 6 months.
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6
Q

What did Florence Nightingale do after the Crimea?

A
  • Nightingale was hailed as a heroine, and the Nightingale Fund was set up with £44,000.
  • She met Queen Victoria, and set up the Nightingale School.
  • In 1907 Nightingale recieved an Order of Merit.
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7
Q

Who was Mary Seacole?

A

Mary Seacole was born in Jamaica and gained medical knowedge from her mother. She travelled to the Caribbean treating cholera outbreaks.

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8
Q

What did Mary Seacole do?

A
  • Applied to go to the Crimea twice but refused, so she funded her own trip to visit Scutari.
  • Seacole set up the ‘British Hotel’, which was a shop near the battlefield and she treated people on both sides.
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9
Q

What did Mary Seacole do after the Crimea?

A
  • Seacole returned bankrupt and wrote a book about her exploits, ‘Wonderful Adventures of Mrs Seacole’.
  • Awarded the Legion d’Honneur in 1904.
  • Named ‘Greatest Black Briton’ in a 2004 poll.
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10
Q

What ideas were there about causes of disease at the start of the 19th century?

A
  • God, Devil & Witches.
  • Astrology.
  • Declining belief in Four Humours as there was more in miasmas.
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11
Q

What ideas were there about germs before Pasteur?

A

In the 1600s a microscope was invented by Antony van Leeuwenhoek which showed small organisms.

Antony called these animacules, and proposed the theory of “spontaneous generation”.

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12
Q

How was the first ‘magic bullet’ found?

A
  • Paul Ehrlich (trained with Koch) tested 600+ dyes over 4 years to see if dye could kill germs.
  • Dr. Hata joined Ehrlich’s team in 1909 and retested the dyes, and found no. 606 worked.
  • 1910; Salvarson 606 for syphilis.
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13
Q

How was penicillin discovered?

A
  • First discovered by Joseph Lister in 1871 but not developed.
  • Fleming, after working as an army doctor in WW1, researched staphylococci in 1928.
  • He was amazed to find penicillin could be injected or applied to kill infection, and published articles on his findings 1929-31.
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14
Q

How was finding magic bullets made easier?

A

In 1932 a new microscope was invented, which helped researchers to identify the active ingredient in the dyes, sulphonamide.

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15
Q

Why did the UK government fund Florey & Chain to research antibiotics at Oxford?

A

In 1939 the government funded them because it was WW2, and the UK was losing. The magic bullets weren’t useful, they needed antibiotics.

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16
Q

How did Florey & Chain research penicillin?

A

Stage 1) Grew penicillin in milk bottles.

Stage 2) Experimented on 8 mice➡️All infected with staphylococci, 4 given penicillin and live, 4 not given and died.

Stage 3) 1941, tested on a human➡️Worked, but not enough penicillin so after 4 days he died.

17
Q

How did penicillin become a widely used antibiotic?

A
  • Florey turned to the US government, who gave $75 million to 4 drug companies.
  • By 1944 enough penicillin had been made to treat every soldier involved in the D-Day landings which halved the time that soldiers spent in hospital.
  • From 1945 onwards civilians had access to penicillin which transformed medicine.
18
Q

What drugs have been developed since penicillin?

A

1954- Polio vaccine.

1950s- Antihistamines.

1960s- Contraceptive pill in Australia.

19
Q

What problems does modern medicine and drugs face?

A
  • Affects developing countries more➡️E.g: Africa= 5% cholera fatality rate, Rest of world= 1% cholera fatality rate.
  • Addiction➡️E.g: Morphine, paracetamol, heroine.
  • No cures to viruses.
  • Mistakes➡️E.g: Thalidomide in 1960s affected 10,000+ babies.
20
Q

How did the discoveries made in modern medicine link?

A
  • Jenner’s vaccine inspired Pasteur’s vaccine.
  • Koch used Pasteur’s germ theory to isolate anthrax germ/expand on theory.
  • Florey & Chain used Fleming’s discovery of penicillin to make first antibiotic.
21
Q

How and why did things develop/progress in modern medicine?

A
  • 1600s➡️Microscope invented so small organisms discovered.
  • 1837➡️Lister made newer microscope which helped the germ theory to be discovered.
  • Industry-funded research➡️E.g: Wine industry funded Pasteur, sheep industry funded Koch.
  • Government funding➡️Chicken cholera, penicillin.
  • War➡️Franco-Prussian war= government and scientist rivarly (Koch and Pasteur)➡️WW1 inspired Fleming➡️WW2= penicillin.
22
Q

Why did Pasteur investigate germs?

A

The French wine industry was losing money, so they hired Pasteur to work out why their wine was going bad.

23
Q

How did Pasteur investigate germs?

A

Swan neck flask experiment➡️U-turn trapped microbes so broth remains sterile, breaking off swan neck allows microbes in so broth spoils.

This proved that germs caused decay.

24
Q

When was the Germ Theory published?

A

1861.

25
Q

Why did Koch investigate anthrax?

A

In 1875 Koch was hired by the sheep industry because the anthrax was killing sheep.

26
Q

How did Koch investigate anthrax?

A

Injected into mice until he had isolated the anthrax microbe➡️ repeated 20x.

27
Q

How did Koch identify septicaemia?

A

He used violet dye to mark the germs and photograph them which gave him proof.

28
Q

How did Pasteur discover the chicken cholera vaccine?

A
  • He was inspired by Jenner to find a milder strain to act as a vaccine.
  • He used Koch’s work to isolate the germ.
  • By chance, the germs were left out and they discovered the air had weakened them.
29
Q

What vaccines were found following the chicken cholera vaccine?

A
  • 1881; sheep anthrax➡️Pasteur.
  • 1884; rabies➡️Pasteur.
  • 1908; tuberculosis➡️Calmette (Pasteur’s team).
  • 1913; diptheria➡️Behring (Koch’s team).