mitosis Flashcards
What is the cell cycle and outline its stages
Regulated cycle of division with intermediate growth periods
-Interphase
-Mitosis
-Cytokinesis
What happens during interphase
DNA is replicated and checked for errors
Protein synthesis
Mitochondria and chloroplasts grow and divide
Normal metabolic reactions occur
Three stages of interphase:
G1-the first growth phase, the proteins from which organelles are synthesised are produced and organelles replicate.The cell increases in its size
S-synthesis phase.DNAs replicated in nucleus
G2-The second growth phase,cell continues to increase its size,energy stores are increased and the duplicated dna is checked for errors
What happens in g0 and why does it occur
Where the cell moves out of the cell cycle
When it goes through differentiation-a cell becomes specialised to carry out a particular function.this can make it unable to divide,it will carry out this function indefinitely.
DNA becoming damaged-cell division may no longer be viable. It enters a state of permanent cell arrest. Most cells will do this as they only divide a set number of times
When the no of cells that goes through differentiation o r gets damaged increase in the body what could happen
Diseases could occur
What is the purpose of mitosis
Produces 2 genetically identical daughter cells for :
Growth
Cell replacement/tissue repair
Asexual reproduction
What’s the purpose of checkpoints
What does the spindle assembly checkpoint check for
What does g1 check for
What does G2 check for
Control the mechanisms of cell cycle
They Verify if the processes that each stage have been completed correctly before the cell is allowed to move onto the next phase .
Chromosome attachment to spindle
G1- cell size, nutrients,growth factors,dna damage
G2-cell size,dna replication,dna damage
What’s the duration of the cell cycle
If a cycle lasts 24 hrs
Interphase generally last 18-20 hrs as cells spend most of the time there as G1 lasts for about 10 hours
S phase lasts according to the dna that the cell contains,the rate of synthesis is fairly constant between cells and species.Usually cells will take between 5 and 6 hours to complete S phase
G2 is shorter, lasting only 3-4 hours in most cells
Mitosis takes 2 hours
Structure of chromosomes in mitosis
Chromosomes are made of two strands joined in middle by a centromere. The separated strands are chromatids , two strands on the same chromosome are called sister chromatids
Two strands-chromosomes already made a copy of itself during interphase
After mitosis chromosomes end up as one strand chromosomes in new daughter cells
What happens during early prophase and late prophase
Early- during prophase the chrosmomes becomes more distinct.
-They coil up
-shorten
-thicken
-take up stain more intensely
The centriole divides
Nucleolus becomes less prominent.
Nuclear membrane begins to break down
Late prophase-
chromosomes have becomes more distinct and seen to consist of two chromatids joined by centromere
Protein microtubules form spindle shaped structures linking the poles of the cell. Fibres forming the spindle are necessary to move chromosomes into correct positions before division.
2 Centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell
Spindle fibres form and attach to specific areas on the centromeres and to move the chromosomes to centre .
Nucleolus continues to shrink and disappear
Nucelear envelope disintegrates
What happens in metaphase
The Chromosomes(w two chromatids) are moved by spindle fibres and they attach to centromere to form a plane in the centre of the cell,called metaphase plate and then held in position.at metaphase checkpoint cell checks all the chrosomes are attached to the spindle before mitosis can continue
What happens in anaphase
Centromeres holding the pairs of chromatids in each chromosome divide during anaphase . Chromatids are seperated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell by shortening spindle fibres(when they contract).
The v shape of the chromatids moving towards the pole is due to….
Them being dragged by their centromeres through the liquid cystosol.
What happens in telophase
The chromatids have reached the poles and are called chromosomes. The two new sets of chromosomes assemble at each pole and nuclear envelope forms around em.Chromosomes start to uncoil and nucleolus formed. Cell didvsuon begins to
What happens in cytokinesis in animals cells and plants cells
Cell divides and Daughter cells have same chrome number and genetic makeup as each other and the parent cell
In animal, constriction from edges of cell where cytoskeleton pulls membrane inwards forming a cleavage furrow
In plant,no cleaver furrow due to cell walls
Vesicles produced by Golgi assemble where metaphase plate was fusing with each other and membrane splitting the cell
And new sections of cell wall then forms
Difference between mitosis and cytokinesis
Mitosis is nuclear division where as cytokinesis cytoplasm splits to make daughter cells so its cell division
Explain with reference to structure and function of proteins importance of g2 checkpoints
If there’s an error in chromosomes it could affect amino acid sequence in protein and change in amino acid sequence could affect the shape and function of the progeny and proteins may not fold properly affecting primary secondary and tertiary structures
What are telomeres
Repetitive sequences of dna at end of chromosomes that protect genes at end of chrosomes and stop ends of C from fusing.
DNAs not replicated all the way to the end so everytime replication occurs telomeres shorten
Limiting no of times a cell can shorten
How is cell cycle regulated
Checkpoints are regulated by cell signalling proteins who ensure damaged cells don’t progress to next stage of cell cycle
What happens at each key checkpoint between cell cycle my
Between g1 and S cell checks for dna damage. After restriction point cell enters cycle.Between g2 and M cell checks chrosoome replication
At metaphase checkpoint cell checks of sister chromatids have been attached to spindle correctly
How to do carry out mitosis
1)using a scalpel cut off 4 root tips each 1-2cm long.
2)put tips on watch glass and cover w ethanoic acid.Leave for 10 mins in fume cupboard
3)pour 10cm3 Of HCL into test tube and place in water batch at 60c for 5 mins
4)remove tips with forceps and place in a 100ml beaker with cold water. Wash the tips for 5 mins dry it on filter paper and take water out.
5)transfer root tips into HCL in water bath for 5 mins
6)place two root tips into a clean microscope slide cut and keep last two mm of tip break them up w forceps till flat
7)add small drop of toluidene stain and leave for 2 mins
8) remove slide from fume cupboard and place on paper towel before covering with coverslip. Firmly press it down covered without twisting
Why do we use ethanoic acid
Why do we use HCL
Why do we use toiludine blue
why do we not twist
Break down cell walls,make it easier to get stain in
Breaks down cell contents especially nuclear envelope
Toludine blue- affinity for acids esp nucleic acids.makes chromosomes visible
to not break chrom0somes
How does cancer occur
Cancer cells form from uncontrollable cell division and continue to replicate rapidly without control systems normal cells have.
They form lumps/tumours dangling strong tissues and cancer cells can break off from tumour and go to other parts of the body.
When it goes to another party of body it’s meta sized. They continue to replicate and make secondary tumours.