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Misinformation Management Flashcards

1
Q

What is disinformation?

A

Information that is false and deliberately fabricated to mislead persons, social groups, organisations or countries

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2
Q

What is misinformation?

A

Information that is false or inaccurate - not necessarily created with the intention of causing harm

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3
Q

What is the general linear of communication?

A

Source> Encoding > Message > Medium > Decoding > Receive > Feedback to the Source
- Noise/interference (environment) - Human bias, physical noise (distraction), authority’s opinion, emotional state, cognitive dissonance, culture and values, physiology (hunger, physical state)
- Moreover, feedback is not necessarily answered back by the source (verbal and non verbal cues)

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4
Q

What are the levels of communication from the top to the bottom?

A

Mass Communication (all of society)
Institutional (government bodies, corporations)
Intergroup (Between communities)
Intragroup (family, friends)
Interpersonal (Dyads; between 2 or 3 people)
Intrapersonal (cognitive processes, human bias)

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5
Q

What are some examples of the power of media?

A

Payne Fund Studies: Movies came out and public fear on violence -> study of how movie effect children’s behavior -> fuelled fear and there was public outcry -> reason why we have censorship in movies/age rating

The War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells
- >Made a radio programme from this book where they put realistic sound audio, fake interviews of people being attacked by martians/aliens ->Although, they had a disclaimer at the front but most people tuned in the middle of the program and thought it was real -> People in the US really thought it was real and caused so much panic, people were fleeing their houses, calling to check on their loved ones

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6
Q

What is the hypodermic needle (Magic Bullet) Theory?

A

Messages are directly received and accepted by receivers, like an injection

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7
Q

What is the Propaganda theory?

A

Systematic and manipulative use of media and communication to influence audiences

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8
Q

What is the two-step flow theory?

A

Influence is indirect; flowing first to opinion leaders, who then go on to influence the masses

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9
Q

What does it mean that media can be an agent for moral panic?

A

by creating public “folk devils” as scapegoats for symbolic crusades so as to mobilise (manipulate) broad constituencies through anger and demagoguery

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10
Q

What are the different opportunities and challenges the different levels of communication present?

A

Higher: Fewer players, Broad content, Highly regulated, Greater influence

Lower: Many players, High fragmentation, Harder to regulate, Less influence

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11
Q

What is gatekeeping?

A

selection of events and stories on the grounds of “newsworthiness” and other criteria
- Power to decide what people can consume and the interpretation of media

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12
Q

How do they decide what to gatekeep in media?

A
  • Organizational (bureaucracy, routines,) and ideological (religious, cultural influences) values
  • Most news media tend to “agree” tacitly on what issues are important - all said/show the same thing e.g. When Trump was president
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13
Q

What is agenda setting?

A

The power to structure issues and discourse.

  • A process of media influence (intended or unintended) by which the relative importance of news, issues and persons in the public mind are affected by the order of presentation (or relative salience) in news reports.
  • It is assumed that the more media attention is given to a topic, the greater is the importance attributed to it.

-Media influence is not on the direction of opinion but only on what people think about

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14
Q

What are the features of new media?

A
  1. Interactivity
  2. Virtuality
  3. Sociability
  4. Richness
  5. Autonomy
  6. Privacy
  7. Personlisation
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15
Q

What is astroturfing?

A

a. Coordinated inauthentic behavior by groups of people to mislead people about who they are or what they are doing

b. To create the impression that a certain opinion or message is highly credible, by pretending that it comes from a large number of unconnected independent individuals, when in reality it is all the result of a coordinated effort by a centralized source

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16
Q

What are the possible effects of astroturfing?

A

Sow distrust, instigate arguments, create uncertainty, disrupt authentic communication

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17
Q

Why does astroturfing work?

A

Humans have tendency to conform their actions to match the majority - group think, wisdom of the crowds

Pluralistic ignorance - pple think their thoughts, attitudes and feelings are diff from group -> false belief abt pple’s preferences

Fed false evidence about attitudes and behaviors of others -> creates conformist pressure to be like everyone

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18
Q

What is the digital divide?

A

Inequalities that arise from the development of computer-based digital means of communication - economic, usability, empowerment

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19
Q

What is media literacy?

A

The ability to access, comprehend, evaluate and use media in a variety of forms with

  1. awareness of the influences, politics and ethics that guide media organizations and media content,
  2. sensitivities towards the function of media in culture and society
  3. and understanding of the possibilities and limitations of media
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20
Q

What are some steps we can take to be media literate?

A

Authorship, analyses content, institutional purpose, audience, creative elements - what content is subjective and easily manipulated, exaggeration

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21
Q

Media has the power to…

A
  1. attract and direct attention
  2. influence opinions, beliefs, behaviors
  3. legitimize; to shape reality and truth
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22
Q

What determines how powerful the media is?

A

Source: concentrated with elites or spread out with independent entries?
Production: conventional and structured - creative and flexible
Content: Curated and predictable or diverse and audience oriented
Audience: passive and agreeable or active and fragmented

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23
Q

What is the functionalist perspective on media?

A

Media is explained in relation to the needs of society and its individuals

  1. To inform
  2. To facilitate consensus -> qn norms and mobilize social change
  3. To entertain
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24
Q

How does uses and gratifications apply to media?

A

Explains the uses of media and the satisfactions derived from media use in terms of the motives and self-perceived needs of audiences
- Information: Functional purposes
- Diversion: Escape from routine or problems, emotional release
- Relations: Companionship, social utility
- Identity: Self-reference, reality exploration, value reinforcement

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25
Q

What is the political economy perspective on media?

A

Examines r/s btw economic structures and the media - how does capital flows affect what we see, read, and hear on media?

Lowest common denominator approach: focus on mass audiences and financially lucrative audiences
- risk avoidance in media content
- commercial incentives -> sensationalism of news, clickbait, dramatization of news

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26
Q

What is the technocratic perspective on media?

A

Stems from the exponential growth of computerisation, miniaturisation, digitalisation and information networks, as well as the rise of social structures that value information work, networks and data orientation as bases of wealth and power.

Challenges traditional structures, hierarchies, information and communication flow. Datafication of social life, where all words and actions can be codified into data to be processed, shared, monetised, etc.

Power to institutions and entities that own and control information flow and networks; individuals and groups who can code, interpret, participate and leverage information for advantage (think: Silicon Valley elites)

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27
Q

What is the social presence theory?

A

Degree to which individuals perceive the presence of others during communication
– Based on the media’s capacity to transmit verbal and non-verbal cues
– More cues, greater satisfaction with the communication
– The fewer the cues, the lower the attention paid within an interaction

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28
Q

What is the information richness theory?

A

– Information richness is judged by the conveyance of multiple cues, the immediacy of feedback, the ability to personalise, and the ability to tap on varieties of language
– The more information afforded by the media, the more effective it can be - especially when faced with uncertainty or equivocality

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29
Q

What are the steps in information processing?

A
  1. filtering
  2. Meaning matching - Access reference points, i.e., where meanings may have been previously encountered + Recognise beliefs and understandings associated with the referents
  3. Meaning construction - Interpret the information from multiple perspectives and angles + build connections
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30
Q

What is social grooming?

A

To signal attention to others in mediated environments as to
maintain connection with others and to build social capital.

To present oneself via diverse activities that leave visible signals of attention, such as giving likes, leaving comments, or DMs, etc.

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31
Q

What is selective self presentation theory?

A

Online communicators are savvy about the self-presentational opportunities and limitations afforded by computer-mediated communication and will use them in a strategic way to maximise interaction goals.

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32
Q

What are some features the communicator will consider in selective self presenation theory?

A

Features that communicators will consider:
– Rehearsability: Ability to think through information before its publication (afforded by asychronity)
– Editability: Ability to revise, modify and control information
– Reduced communication cues: Understanding the media’s parameters
– Recordability: Ability to save, store and retrieve information (e.g., screenshot)
– Anticipated future interaction: Expectation of meeting in person

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33
Q

What is the warranting theory?

A

Distance between what’s real and what’s presented; self and self-presentation.

Users assess the credibility of online information by evaluating its warranting value - degree to which a target (e.g., person, organisation, company) is perceived to have manipulated, controlled, or shaped information that is about that target. The higher the perceived manipulation or control by the subject, the lower the warranting value.

Low warranting value can explain why people are more or less likely to produce deceptive information online

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34
Q

What is risk information processing?

A

Risk perceptions contribute to information insufficienty and percieving a risky situation as severe and dangerous to oneself

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35
Q

When do people engage in risk information processing?

A

When individuals percive a lack of sufficient information about a risk, they are more likely to engage in active information seeking behaviours to cope with the mental state of uncertaintiy that they experince in risky enviroments

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36
Q

What system does risk perceptions activiate?

A

Systematic information processing with accuracy motivations as people attempt to cope with their uncertainites

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37
Q

What is the social amplification of risks?

Social amplification of risk framework (SARF)

A

SARF posits that risk amplification occus in the transfer of information about the risk, with the underlying assumption that risks are interactive phenomena that involve socialising within a network aka media can a amplify, filter or reduce risk signals

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38
Q

What causes the belief in misinformation?

A
  1. Can stem from information overload
  2. post truth society: where objective facts are less influential in shapping public opinion that appels to emotion and personal belief
  3. Confirmation bias
  4. Misinformation often preys on human emotions and insecurities
  5. Poor media skils
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39
Q

What is fake news?

A

“Fake news” used to refer only to parodies and satires but contemporary understandings of “fake news” refers to false stories that can mislead readers

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40
Q

What are the motivation behind creating fake news?

A

Financial gain from clickas and views and ideological gains through the advancement of arguments, idea and perspecitive

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41
Q

What is the cultural impact of fake news?

A

Buzzword to discredit, and complicate public understanding and discourse + oxymoron: news is supposed to be based on truth

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42
Q

What are parodies?

A

Humour that invovles mimicking and imitating real persoons, personas, events, places ect

Often plays on the ludicrousness of issues and serves as social commentary or critique

Parodies can be mistaken for real news, if the humour is subtle, leading to the unintentional spread of misinformation when readers take the content seriously
- Informative and entertaining

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43
Q

What is satire?

A

Employs exaggeration, irony, sarcasm and humor to present news and infromation - often in a critical manner

Play on ludicrousness of issues and highlights them by making entirely fictitious news stories
- e.g. The Onion

Assumption is that author and read of news share the gag

Such contents can serve as commentaries and critiques of political, economic, and social issues - to inform and to influence social attitudes

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44
Q

What is fabrication?

A

Created with the intention of misleading readers by mimicking the style of legitimate news information. Difficult to distinguish from real news as they are often designed to look authentic, sound fair balanced, and truthful
- giving it a “veneer of authenticity” (especially when it’s published on nonpartisan platforms and shared by friend

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45
Q

What do fabrication capitalise on in order to work?

A

Often capitalises on existing social tensions, making them more likely to be believed by readers who are already biased.

Bots and algorithms facilitate spread by creating the illusion of widespread acceptance and lending legitimacy.

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46
Q

What are ads and pr?

A

Advertising and public relations materials are, sometimes, made to appear as if they are real news / objective, non-partisan information

As practitioners adopt the appearances of news media to promote products or ideas, audiences may be misled to perceive the content without questioning its origin or bias.

Clickbait headlines and tactics may exploit news values to attract attention but mislead users, often diverting them to sites that may further mislead users

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47
Q

How are some ways the people sneak in advertising and pr?

A

Video News Releases -> pre packaged video segments produced by PR firms to sell/promote product, company and idea
- Packaged with tv news - Obscure origin as it can mislead audience into believing news is produced free from bias

Narrative advertising
Combine genuine news stories but only when examining presentation it is a advertisement
- Usually based on facts but typically incomplete to focus on positive aspects of person or product =E.g. 2014 news feature published on The New York Times’ website on women’s incarceration. This was used to promote the television program Orange is the New Black

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48
Q

What are the typology of fakes news?

A

Satire, Ads, Parody and fabircation?

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49
Q

How do we define the typology of fake news?

A

Facticity: degree to which content relies on facts e.g. satires rely on factos as they offer exaggerated takes while fabrications are presented w/o factual basis

Author’s immediate intention: Degree to which the content creator intends to mis leads - satire + parodies are for jokes for bending facts

50
Q

What is the role of the audience in fake news?

A

Fake news created by journalist but is co-constructed by the audience - it’s fake because you percieved it as real but if you don’t, it’s just a work of fiction

51
Q

What motivates our media use?

A

Motivation = Expectancy x Value

Expectation: Audiences’ belief and confidence in the gratifications of media use based on relevant past experiences with said media.

Value: Extent to which naudiences desire the gratifications

52
Q

What are parasocial interactions/relationships?

A
  • explain relationship between the audience and the performers’ persona.
  • Developed and strengthened through repeated parasocial interactions.
  • Describes enduring relationship that extends beyond media use, and that cannot be reciprocated
53
Q

How does media domestication occur?

A
  1. Media and technology adopted and used by people
  2. Users and enviroment change accordingly to adapt to media and technology
  3. Media and technology receive advancements, upgrades, new features
  4. Media and technologies reflect our ways of life
54
Q

How might audience norms affect media?

A

Audience expect media to conform to certain forms of truthfulness and factuality, good taste and morality and to values deemed important to local community

News outlets are traditionally judged on credibility -> once truth is lost, it is hard to regain
Norms for what is acceptable (sex, violence, profanities) and societies deems as deviant behaviours.

Protection of children and the personal susceptibility and moral standards of adults are often contested

55
Q

What is the information deficit model?

A

the dissementaion of accurate, scientific, factual information to audiences can result in improvements in accurate, factual, scientific knowledge, thus resulting in behaviours better informed by science

56
Q

What are the some flaws of the information deficit model?

A

Model ignores the cognitive, social and affective drivers of attitude formation and truth judgements, e.g., existence of climate change deniers in an environment where access to information on climate science is ubiquitous.

  • Rejection of facts and scientific information may be motivated by other factors (think: expectancy value theory)
57
Q

How do false beliefs arises?

A

When deciding what is true, people are often biased to believe in the validity of information, and ‘go with their gut’ and intuitions instead of deliberating.

58
Q

What is the illusonary truth effect?

A

When people rely on peripheral cues such as familiarity (a signal that a message has been encountered before), processing fluency (a signal that a message is either encoded or retrieved effortlessly) and cohesion (a signal that the elements of a message have references in memory that are internally consistent) as signals for truth

59
Q

What determines the strength of peripheral cues?

A

Repetition increases belief in both misinformation and facts. Illusory truths can persist months after first exposure, regardless of cognitive ability and despite contradictory advice from accurate sources

60
Q

What drives human gullibility?

A
  1. Availability heuristic: Tendency to estimate the commonality of an event based on its mental availability (often influenced by its vividness or distinctiveness).
  2. Confirmation bias: Tendency to welcome information that supports our views, and to discount what does not.
  3. Self-justification: Tendency to correct cognitive dissonance by denying any feedback that runs counter to one’s beliefs.
  4. Illusory correlations: Tendency to identify patterns and draw conclusions; leading to perceptions of causal links where there are none.
  5. Dunning–Kruger effect: Tendency to overestimate our intelligence. Ignorance ironically fosters overconfidence. The less people know, the less aware they are of their own ignorance and the more definite they may sound. Lack of self awareness that prevents these people from assessing their own knowledge or ability accurately
61
Q

How is misinformation driven by trust issues?

A
  • People trust human sources more if they perceive the source as attractive, powerful and similar to themselves.
  • People believe in-group members more than outgroup members, and will tend to weigh opinions equally, regardless of the competence of those expressing them, and will often overestimate how much their beliefs overlap with others.
  • Experts and political elites are trusted by many and have the power to shape public perceptions; therefore, it can be especially damaging when figures of authority make false claims.
62
Q

How is misinformation driven by emotions?

A

Emotional content influences false-belief formation. Misleading information that spreads virally often using emotional appeals, such as fear, to persuade and change attitudes and behaviours.

Emotion can distract from important cues like source credibility, as studies show that judgements are more influenced by the emotional tone of a message than the trustworthiness of the source.

63
Q

What are examples of emotional states that can drive misinformation?

A

Specific emotional states, such as happiness or anger, can increase vulnerability to deception and illusory truth.

Negative emotions like social exclusion can heighten susceptibility to conspiracy theories. Anger can drive people to share and spread misinformation.

Lazy or intuitive thinking can facilitate the sharing of content that they might recognise as false if they thought about it more.

64
Q

What is the continued influence effect?

A

When the accurate information is learned, the original (mis)information is not erased or replaced. Information and misinformation thus co-exist and compete for activation in our brains
- affects people’s ability to accept accurate information even after the misinformation has been corrected.

65
Q

What are the factors that affect continued influence effect?

A
  1. Source credibility: Perceived trustworthiness and expertise of information sources significantly affect whether misinformation or corrections areaccepted.
  2. Worldview: Corrections that challenge a person’s values, belief systems or identity will likely backfire. Such corrections can be experienced as an attack, which can triggers emotional responses that will hinder acceptance of the revised information.
  3. Emotion: Corrections can trigger psychological discomforts and other emotional responses, which can lead audiences to reject the revised information, and to reinforce existing beliefs.
  4. Emotional recalibration: Corrections can make audiences feel good (e.g., fostering feelings of hope or reducing feelings of fear) can facilitate acceptance.
66
Q

What factors fuels consipracy beliefs?

A
  1. Often related with feelings of powerlessness
  2. Perceivers ascribe hostile and evil qualities to an out-group.
  3. Tendency towards simplistic thinking; the believe that complex sociopolitical problems actually have simple causes and simple solutions.
  4. Tendency to exercise intuitive thinking. Yet, capacity to think analytically is insufficient to reduce conspiracy beliefs; one also needs to be motivated to be rational and rely on evidence to come to informed judgments. System 2 thinking stimulates skepticism of conspiracy theories instead of belief in them.
  5. The more strongly people believe conspiracy theories, the more likely they also endorse implausible non-conspiratorial beliefs including paranormal phenomena, superstition, pseudo-science, and pseudo-profound bullshit
67
Q

What are the two interventions to misinformation?

A

Prebunking and debunking

68
Q

What is debunking?

A

Reactive intervention that responds to specific instances and specific misinformation to explain and correct inaccuracies

69
Q

What is prebunking?

A

Preemptive intervention that helps people to recognise and to subsequently resist misinformation that they may encounter

70
Q

How does prebunking works?

A
  1. Inoculation theory: Draws on the principle of vaccination, where exposure to weakened forms of persuasive arguments strengthens people’s critical thinking and builds resistance to future misinformation. How?
    - Warn audiences about the threat of misleading persuasion (e.g., false climate change claims).
    - Teach the techniques or fallacies used to mislead (e.g., cherry-picking data, fake experts, etc.) as to help individuals identify and refute similar arguments in the future.
  2. Information and media literacy: The ability to find, evaluate, and use information and media effectively. Such critical thinking skills can reduce susceptibility to misinformation.
  3. Lateral reading: Going beyond the source to verify the origins and credibility of the information and the source.
  4. Overall, prebunking builds resistance to misinformation - broadly. Its lack of specificity is also its limitation
71
Q

What are the best practices for debunking?

A

A. Provide factual information and explain how the error happened. Detailed refutations are more effective than brief retractions.

B. Explain how the information is incorrect and make the correction obvious. Include warning label and avoid repeating misinformation unnecessarily. Repeat the correct information as reinforcement.

C. Source credibility matters. Corrections can be made more effective if it comes from trusted sources

D. Pair corrections with social norms to reinforce the message:
* Injunctive norms, what people ought to do, e.g., “vaccination is the right thing to do”
* Descriptive norms, what people actually do, e.g., “90% of parents vaccinate their children”

E. Use simple language and visuals to aid understanding, and to communicate empathically.
Empathy can reduce the likelihood of triggering the misinformed’s defensiveness, which can bring about counter-arguments.

F. Identity affirmation can help mitigate worldview-threatening corrections by reinforcing self-worth, making corrections less threatening and more palatable

72
Q

How does science stay objective?

A
  1. Hypothetico-deductive model
  2. System of logic (explanation)
  3. Povitisim
73
Q

What values make a critical thinker?

A
  1. Open-minded
  2. Analytical
  3. Systematic
  4. Inqusisitive
  5. Judicious
  6. Confident in reasoning
74
Q

What are the steps in critical thinking?

A

Interpretation -> Analysis -> Evaluation -> Explanation -> Self-regulation

75
Q

What are the challanges to science communication?

A
  1. Science is rarely settled
  2. Facts are complex & often interpreted in more than 1 ways
  3. Does not flow directly to audience but mediated by orgs, media and other actors
  4. Belief in the information deficiet model
  5. Being accurate and correct does not mean it is effective
  6. Incomplete infomation
  7. Audience have different levels of knowledge and skills to interpreate information
76
Q

What are the audience factors that affect science communication?

A
  1. Prior knowledge of science
  2. Use of heuristics
77
Q

What are the faults in science?

A

Poor lit review, small sample size, lack of represenation, correlation = causation, errors with interpretation

78
Q

What are the faults in scientists?

A
  1. Desirability bias
  2. Confirmation bias
  3. Mathew effect
79
Q

How can we communicate objective science?

A
  1. Share data
  2. Storytelling
  3. Framing
  4. Tailor message
  5. Establish credibility with humility
  6. Dialouge
  7. Authenticity
80
Q

What is media governance?

A

The manner in which the media are controlled in reflects both the media’s indispensability for business, politics and everyday social and cultural life, and their relationship to sociopolitical institutions and elites

81
Q

What are the goals of media governance?

A
  • Protection of interests of state and public order
  • Safeguarding indivduals rights and interest
  • Meeting the needs of the media for stable and supportive operating environment
  • Promotion of freedom and other communication and cultural values
  • Encouragement of technological innovations and economic enterprise
  • Setting of technical and infrastructural standards
  • Meeting international obligation e.g. observance of human rights
  • Encouragement of media accountability
82
Q

What are the dimensions of media governance?

A

Formal & Informal and External & Internal

83
Q

What are the different types of media governance?

A

Formal & external: laws, regulation and public policies
Formal & Internal: management, Ethics, organisational policies
Informal & external: public opinion, market forces, civil society
Informal & internal: organisational culture and employee feedback

84
Q

What is interactive intrusions?

A

Techniques where someone actively enagage target system, by mimciking legitimate user behaviours - a human not automated

a human, not automated

85
Q

What is social engineering?

A

Tactic of manipulating, influencing or deceiving a victim in order to gain control over a computer system, or to steal personal and financial information.

86
Q

How does social engineering work?

A

Uses psychological manipulation to trick users into making security mistakes or giving away sensitive information

87
Q

What is Pretexting?

A

Form of social engineering where a criminal creates a fictional backstory that is used to mainpulate somone into providing private information or to influence behaviour

88
Q

How does pretexting work?

A

Personate a person of authority, co-worker or trusted org -> engage in back and forth communication to collect info

  • do extensive research on a target to create credible story to help build rapport and establish trust
89
Q

What is phishing?

A

Malicious attempt to obtain sensitive information about individuals by disgusing as a trustworhty website, person or company

90
Q

What is spear phishing?

A

Targeted, personalised, sophisticated phishing email messages designed to gather information about the vicitim by spying on email, social media ect. -> use info for impersonation, theft & crime

91
Q

What is vishing?

A

Phishing conducted over the phone by scammers portraying themselves as trustworthy entities

92
Q

What is business email compromise?

A

Impersonation of an individual in an organisation in order to trick employees, colleagues or vendors to surrender info, transfer funds ect

93
Q

What is baiting?

A

Form of attack where scammers lure vicitims into traps to steal personal and financial info or inflict the system with maleware - e.g. ads that lead to malicious sites

94
Q

What is tailgating?

A

A physical breach where an unauthorised person manipulates their way into restricted or employee only authorised areas

95
Q

what is scamware?

A

Victims being bombared with fals alarms and fictitious threats -> think system is infected and prompt them to install actual maleware -> grant scammers remote access to user’s computer

96
Q

What is dumspter diving?

A

Attackers gathering sensitive info from trash - e.g. physical trash or harvesting info from computers that are stolen, sold or found

97
Q

What is Quid Pro Quo?

A

Involves attackers posing as a legitimate vendors or IT department colleagues, offering services or benefits in order to trick vicitims into surrending sensitive data, login credentials, money

98
Q

How to strengthen our cyber security?

A
  1. Digital transformation strategy
  2. Recognise, detect and assess
  3. Build a cybersecurity culture
  4. Develop monitoring and intervention tools
  5. Build capacities

Week 9

99
Q

What is the extent and strength of media governance based on?

A
  1. Claim to freedom
  2. Perception of potential harms
  3. Need for equitable resource allocation
  4. Feasibilty of effective regulation e.g. great firewall of china
  5. Media society r/s
    - Liberal: freedom of press; minimal state intervention
    - Democratic corporatist: balances need for business sustainbility with public service
    - Polarised plurist: media reflects politicisation in society
100
Q

What are the models of governance?

A

Free press model, broadcast model, common carrier model

101
Q

What is the streisand effect?

A

Phenomenon whereby an attempt to remove or censor a piece of information has paradoxical consequence of publicising more widely - linked to information released on the internet where suppressing photos, files and websites is nearly impossible

102
Q

What are the challenges with legislative approach in governing information?

A
  1. Global dimension of the internet in relation to the territoral boundaries of laws
  2. Different coutries have different standards of what count as fake news
  3. Difficulties in identifying the actual preptrators of fake news challenges enforcement
  4. Increasing sophistication of misinformation and disinformation campaigns
  5. Double standards btw online and offline content laws
103
Q

What is censorship?

A

Restriction, suppression or prohibition of forms of speech and media content deemed to be contrary to the common good

104
Q

What is media addiction?

A

A psychiatric/behavioural disorder involving inability to regulate human-media interactions

105
Q

What are the two components of media addiction?

A

Compusivity: the inability to control a certain type of media use
Impairment: where media use harms or interferes with a person’s life

106
Q

How does emotions affect our social media use?

Facebook 2012’s emotional contagion experiement

A

Emotions translate to user information sharing behaviours - when we are less positive, we produce less +ve and more -ve posts and vice versa

Emotions expressed by others on FB influence our own emotions

Emotional content are more engaging + emotionally charged content can spread more successfully

107
Q

What is the cultivation theory?

A

Role of media in society -> the more pople use media (gradually and cumulatively) -> become more immerse and will adopt a view of the world expressed in media

108
Q

What can explain the third person effect?

A

Attribution theory –> making internal attributions for others but external attributions to others –> fundamental attribution errors

108
Q

What is the third person effect?

A

Perception that media messages influences others more than ourselves, leading to responses that reflect disparities btw truth and perception

109
Q

How does sharing news increase our social capital?

A

Opportunities for social bonding + consuming tragic news collectively foster sense of connection with others + being a social opinion leader (being well informed) can be used to socialise and gain status

110
Q

How does sharing fake news increase our social capital?

A

On social media, novel and speed > validation and accuracy –> fake news tend to be novel than typical truths –> motivates user to share them quickly

111
Q

Why do we share fake news beyond social capital?

A

Distrust in media -> belief in fake news = perception that media enviroment lacks clear info authorities

Young people find alternative, satirical and non-mainstream sources are seen more credible than legacy news

112
Q

What are the factors affecting trust in news media?

A
  1. transparency - how info is sources + reproted, disclosure of COIs
  2. High standards - professionalism in reporting - fact checking + interviewing
  3. Fair representation - giving voices to diverse groups - balance and accurate
  4. Perception of lack of bias - takes objective and impartial tone
113
Q

Why are short form videos growing in popularity?

A

Younger peeps find unfiltered content more trustworthy and authentic than traditional media
- videos captured by bystandards -> seem to lack bias or political spin
- Perception that videos are harder to falsify and allow viewers to form their own opinions
- convenience of recieving news on platforms they already use
- conveince and choice > source and trustworthiness

114
Q

What are the challanges with labelling misinformation?

A

Helpful only if peeps view labels + labller are credible or trustworthy
- if readers disagree with labeller or an label -> reinforce their existing beliefs about the source and the infomation circulated by it

115
Q

What is the worldview backfire effect?

A

Occurs when correction challenges an individual’s deeply held beliefs or worldviews, leading them to reinfoce their original misconceptions as a defensive reaction –> pple generate counterarguments that align with their pre-existing views, making them less receptive to the concern

116
Q

What is familiarity backfire effect?

A

Occurs when misinfo is repeated within the correction itself. the repetition can inadvertently increases familiarity with the false claim, leading individuals to believe to more strongly

117
Q

What is the boomerang effect?

A

a situation where attempts to persuade individuals lead them to adopt a position contrary to what was intended

118
Q

What are the two main mechanisms that prophylactic inoculation relies on?

A
  1. Forewarning - exposure counter-attiudinal attack trigger sense of threat –>motivate resistance + aware of their own vulnerability
  2. Preemptive refutation - help model counter-arguing process and provide people with specific content that they can use to refute future persuasive challanges -> provide passive defense so people can generate their own active defences
119
Q

What is therapeutic inoculation?

A

Targeted intervention aimed at treating individuals who have already been exposed or hold beliefs in misinformation –> increase their awareness of misifno threats + tools to evaluate info more critically

120
Q

What are good practices when using inoculation theory?

A
  1. Logic based content (understanding fallacies) > Fact-based content -> more effective in reducing misconceptions
  2. Emotionally evocative content offer stronger resistance - esp agianst emotional misinformation
  3. Active prophlactic inoculation > passive inoculation – last up to 2 months and “booster shots” needed

UNI stuff (12 decks)

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