Holy wars in western and central europe in middle ages Flashcards
Identify the function of clubbing
Clubbing was used by the Romans Soldiers & policeman as a form of judicial enforcement for civil disobedience in the late 4th century. For the Circumcellions, it was a form of mimicry where they imitated Roman practices, by using the same form of discipline to enforce their form of religious order.
Circumcellions/Antagonist (Christian Radicals of North Africa) used violence as means of religious purification e.g targeting what they considered as bad clergy men-> they saw their acts of violence as justified for a divine cause -> similar reason of how people would go for Holy war
Identify the function and meaning of gouging of the eyes
The function of the gouging of the eyes is used as punishment to humiliate and shame those who committed crimes involving a sharp sense of betrayal. The meaning behind showed that the person was spiritually blind to the Christian truth and linked those persons to heretics and the Jews. The Circumcellions attacked a priest in the Hippo by gouging his eyes in early 5th century. Marking them as heretics –> you can go kill them
Identify the symbolic meaning of dogs
The symbolic meaning of dogs linked those to heretics and something in them were deeply just not holy as dogs were considered as repugnant and vile animals who are hostile and should be left outside. Around mid or late 4th century, where a bishop in Membressa was paraded with dead dogs tied ot his neck. In terms religion and warfare –> symbolism of dog used to dehumanize the heretics -> its better to kill them then to reason with such animals
Identify the basilica and its symbolic meaning.
The basilica is a church building. Its symbolic meaning is that it represented both the living and the death. Early 5th century, circumcellions were attacking. Basiclia was a centre of conflict as the Catholics and Circumcellions would fight over control of the building as possession of the building was seen as authority over the history and saints and martyrs buried there –> my way is superior to yours
Identify Augustine on militant suicide
He thinks they are insane and suicide is essentially murder, he sees it as sinful - “they condemned their savage souls to punishments” in his letter in early 5th century. Circumcellions saw themselves as soilders and saw martydom as means of showing victory and their commitment. –> people willing to die for it? like super fanatics
Identify latrocinium (banditry)
Lactrocinium is what the Catholics used to call the circumcellions as they considered them a threat to social order as their violence was painted as mad and violent. around early 5th century (410ish) - Augustine was like we have real violence. Used to persuade the imperial court to get rid of them –> those who were higher ranking Catholics (bishops and clerics) which are likely corrupted, feared for their lives –> paint them as the enemy (rhetoric to prevent cicumcellions to say they were persecuted)
Identify publica disciplina
Publica disciplina means social order - Augustine writes about how the Donatist is a threat to social order in 412 to the proconsul in rome- asking for legitimacy to use force to “take down” the evil Donatist - justify use of force - we are good, they are bad, we use force with good intention and not for murder unlike the bad donatist - use of religion to coerce violence
Identify the council of Elvira.
Council of Elvira is a council founded in early 4th century in Southern Spain which decided on rules and regulations of how the Church could act. The council played a important role of legitimizing violence which influenced how the conflict was seen.
Identify the prayer for Carolingion ruler
Prayer showed loyalty to the Monarch + Prayer for stability and safety for the empire and by praying for him -> you prayed for the military for God’s divine favor to take down the rebels. (great political and spiritual significance) I think the prayers were in late 8th century. - loyalty values if not you are infidel
Identify the purpose and function of Carolingian litanies compared to royal sacring and general oaths of fidelity to ruler
Carolingian litanies served as a form of communal prayer and worship, reinforcing the spiritual authority of the ruler and the people. In contrast, royal sacring and general oaths of fidelity established a direct personal bond between the ruler and his subjects. (late 8th and 9th century) - usually royal scaring and general oaths are used during special occasion, but you can call litanies whenever you want -> Link king + his people to God -> you have to intervene for God!! (plays into loyalty) -> military strength
Identify royal litanies (laudes regiae)
Royal litanies were prayers by the Catholic church, sung for important political decisions or events to obtain God’s guidance/win his favor. - throughout 9th century, it was really common -> connection between the monarchy and the church, helping to unify the Christian community under Carolingian rule + play into God wills it, therefore you gotta go
When are the earliest litanies against pagans or barbarians?
Super early 7th century, 601 AD where Pope Gregory 1 wrote to the bishops of Sicilicy to hold litanies due to enemy threat (Contra barbarica crudelitatis incursus - against the onslaught of barbarian cruelty)- the organization of litanies were tradition since when Rome was the center of the Byzantine empire - similar of other visitations of divine wrath - not unique to bishops of Rome - Divine aid - war with deities help not
Identify Gregory the Great’s justification of war
His justification for war was to spread Christendom through out the nations - likely in late 6th century (590 - 604) - basically to him, spreading christiandom is legitimacy itself for war - clear religious intention
Identify Charlemagne’s Saxon wars
Charlemagne goes for a series of wars in Spain in the late 8th century. He often portrayed his wars as him being the protector of Christians and he was to save them from the non Christians Saracens. Use religion as means for social control and colonial oppression
Identify Frankish knowledge of Islam
Barely (?) - it was a faith that the pagans so happened to be practicing - 8th century - essentially, Islam is just not a christian faith - Even though there are wars against Muslims, it may not be entirely because for conversion, they so happened to believe in Islam - marker that tied deeply with your ethnicity and race too
Agarenes
The people of Spain/al-andalus that Charlemagne wanted to fight in 778 to convert them. They were compared to the people like Phaoroh and his men who drowned in the red Sea - Charlemagne would win the war because they had faith in God
Alcuin’s letter to Pope Leo III
The letter where Alcuin wrote that with God and the prayers from the Papacy would lead the military to victory and expanding Christendom. Letter written in 796. Victory is thanks to our faith and our God -> thats why the we won
The Franks in the Sacramentaries of Angoulême and Gellone
Litiguries about how to hold masses for the soldiers going into battle against the pagans in the early 9th century. Painted the frankish soilders as God’s chosen people and that they are to fight against the pagans that threatened their God and their people - to encourage military support against the Muslim raids that were happening in throughout the 9th century - it was a kingly occupation - something the king must do and therefore you have to join
Theodulf’s poem on Pippin’s victory over the Avars
Poem is about how the Avars that are savage can be tamed and corrected by Carolingian military force, that the Avars should be converted to Christianity. Poem was composed in 796. Evidence that war is of a religiouos nature and the poem also reference riches that the Avars had. Religious war that also had economic reasons to do so.
Ermold on Louis the Pious’s siege of Barcelona
Ermold wrote a poem about Louis’ siege of Barcelona about how the siege was justified as Barcelona is a place for bandits and is being fought on Christian grounds. Wrote the poem in early 9th century (801)- justification for war is that you have to, its your religious duty to do so.
Identify the difference between crusade and holy war for Tyerman
Holy war is a war for religion or approval of the Church (one where security/defense is needed) while a Crusade has to have to be one where it gives users penance and is for liberation of Jerusalem. Not all religious wars are crusades
Identify crusading vows
Vows that crusade armies took that were temporary and operative until a commitment and would wear a physical cross is satisfied in the late 11th century. Turn religious zeal/enthusiasm into a permanent obligation - lock in military support
Identify plenary indulgence
Plenary indulgence is an someone is given remission of sins and guilt if they commit or perform an action. Popular with papal authority to give plenary indulgence in mid 13th century. -> the spiritual benefit that they economized gave papal authority a lot of control
Margaret of Beverley
Cistercian nun that became a warrio/crusader to defend Jerusalem in 1187 and other fights around Antioch. The appeal of the crusade reached across gender
Penance at Hastings
The crusaders had to do penance for killing for the battle at Hastings despite having approval of the papal in 1066. Showed tension btw church stance that violence is sinful even if the violence is war is justified to protect the church.
Identify crusader martyrs
Crusade martyrs are people who died in battle to recapture Jerusalem, however, Louis IX of France who died in his second crusade in late 13th century was not canonized as a martyr but a confessor. Showed tension between understanding of martyrdom and warfare.
Abbasids
Abbasids of Iraq was once powerful empire established in mid 8th century, that was invaded and taken over by the Seljuks. Their fall was caused due to the lack of unity and political instability.
Fatimids
Fatimids came from North Africa and fought with Abbasids for dominance over Islam world, only to break down due to political instability in early 11th century. Authority of Fatimid caliphs were not respected. -> lack of unity
Seljuks Turks
Seljuks were a Turkish tribe that took over the old Arab empires through extreme violence and ruled over the Mediterranean during the 11 century. The empire was run with coercion and collaboration, brutality and exploitation of resources to secure patronage and alliance.
Byzantine policies and geopolitical interests
Byzantine policies was cosmopolitan in nature and focuses on soft power such as culture, language and religion and had international reach. Byzantine geopolitical interest were to form alliances with their Christian neighbors such as the series of marriage alliance in the mid12 century. Religion used for diplomacy
Seljuk system
Seljuk system is a military system where the princes ruled the empire as a family business where anyone of them could be the sultan and power depended on personal military in the 11 century. Constant competition among them -> allowed them to be fluid and mobile
Identify knights and nobles
Knights were synonymous with power and all nobles were knights and by 1200, all knights were noble. Being seen as a strong warrior = authority to show your authority = high social class and culturally important. pg 53
Identify frangopouloi
The frankish people that were the remaining part of the People crusade that met with the main armies of the First Crusade in late 11th century (1096)
Piacenza
Piacenza is where Urban II held a council in 1095, which represented the first international church assembly of his papacy. He took leadership of the movement that led to the first Crusade.
Urban II
Urban II is a pope that promoted the first crusade in 1095-1096, he became pope in 1088. He allowed spiritual rewards (remission of sins) for loyalty to recapture Jerusalem -> he turned war into pilgrimage/warfare is salvation.
Pope Urabn’s first crusade plans
The plan was to have penitential military campaign to Jerusalem to recover the Holy Sepulchre and free eastern Christians from the Muslims. He emphaised his plain in his tour to recruit crusaders from 1095-6. He combined spiritual salvation with military action - hunt and kill the paganssss
Peter the Hermit
Peter the hermit was a popular traveling evangelist who preached in France and led the People’s Crusade in 1096. Peter ability to recruit armed forces showed how religion devotion can be used to justify warfare as it was a holy obligation/direct order of Christ to do so and spiritual reward.
Rhineland pogroms/massacre
Rhineland pogroms is about the massacre and extortion of the Jews living in the Rhineland by the first crusaders in 1096. The violence against the Jews reflected how the crusaders believed the Apocalypse was on to them, so they forced conversions + money needed to fund crusade
The siege of Antioch
The siege led to the crusaders army to be independent/breaking from Byzantium (failure of Empror Alexius), which fell in 1098. This led them to believe they were the new Israelite, chosen and tested by God in death and life -> template for subsequent crusades.
Valdemar I
Valdemar I of Denmark who was king waged war against the Wends before destroying their pagan idols at Arkona in 1168. Religion used as political submission - if i destroy your temple, symbolic of the transfer of power
Bernard of Clairvaux
Benard of Clairvaux sanctioned the adoption of Holy Land crusading symbols and privileges to fight against the pagan Wends in 1147. He legitimise the war as a means to eliminate pagans or forced conversions - characteristic of a pluralist form of crusade
Baptism in the context of the Baltic Crusades
Baptism of the Baltic Crusade were forced conversion to make pagans to convert to become Germans. This occurred during the 12 century. The baptism is a form of political control/coercion to show Christian dominance over the land - and also help legitimize their war as they were doing it for Christ .
Livonia and the Virgin Mary
Livonia was seen as the land of the Virgin Mary. This led to Teutonic Knights ruled over it in the 1230s. Conquest of Livonia is parallel to the narrative seen as taking back Christian lands and defending Christ, often used to justify war.
Albert of Buxtehude
Albert of Buxtehude, bishop of Riga (which he founded) circa 1200, recruited German crusaders and mercantile interests to convert Livonia to Christianity. His activities exemplifies the uneasy alliance between economic interests and religious interests that can characterize a crusade.
Henry of Livonia
Henry of Livonia is a German priest who wrote about the German conquest and christianisation of the region. He likely wrote it around 1225 - 1227. He defends the German invasion of conquest and military suppression as the locals were punished by God for abandoning their faith - the Germans were merely doings as God’s will it
Novgorod
Novgorod is where the failed anti Russian crusade saw the defeat of the Swedes and Teutonic Knights in mid 13th century (1241-50)/multiple failed crusades occurred in 14th century. Holy war against the Russians - gives legitimate excuse to be tax - collect money.
Hermann of Salza
Hermann of Salza was Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights that served in early 13 century ordered the Knight’s invasion into Prussia. This allowed the Order to have power to call and recruit crusades without papal consent, giving them full autonomy.
Reisen
Reisen were raids against Lithuania that promised ltos of material and treasure to be obtained. Multiple reisen took place in the 14th century. Material needs/greed drives warfare.
Song of Roland
Song of Roland is a poem written in the 11th century talking about the defeat of the Frankish regiment by Pyrenean Basques (armies of islam) in 778. Demonizing the Muslim armies -> Christians we were fighting for what is truly right - holy war
taifa
Taifa are Muslim principalities that came into power after the collapse of the Cordoban caliphate in 1031. Not united -> seeking power
parias
Parias were annual tributes/ protection money that the taifas of al-Andalus paid to the Christian rulers of the north after the collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031. Religion not being a factor for paria agreement/ Selling militarily service to highest bidder
El Cid
El Cid was a Castilian nobleman (c. 1045-99) that worked for the Taifas and fought both Christians and Muslim rulers in Eastern Spain. Religion did not matter
Almoravids
Almoravids are a group of Islamic fundamentalists that invaded al-Andalus in 1086. Their military threat and destruction of paria system led to the adoption of christian holy war.
Poem of Almeria
Poem of Almeria describes the victories of military conquest of the port of Almeria in 1147. The poem combines crusade motifs, chivalry values and material wealth together -> show the attitude of how people did holy war with both spiritual and monetary benefits in mind.
Almohads
Almohads took over the decaying Almoravids in North Africa and reversed many earlier Christian advances in the 12th century. Wanted to impose a pure islam -> holy war against both christians and muslims
Las Navas de Tolosa
The battle of Las Navas de Tolosa where the coalition of Alfonso VIII of Castile, Peter II of Argon and Sancho VII of Navarre had victory over the Almohads on 1212. Christian kingdoms united to fight against common enemy despite a lot of political divisions.
crusade taxation and royal fisc
Crusade taxation and royal fisc is how the Church funds the crusades such as using tithe income that occured in the 13th century. You need to finance a crusade or it wont happen.
mudejars
Mudejars were muslims living under christian rules in the Spanish crusade become protected 2nd class citizens during 13th century. Despite religious wars agianst muslim –> social and politics and chill extreme religious goals and lead to tolerance/compromise
Miles sancti Petri
Christian armies that fought against secular rules for Pope Gregory VII in late 11th century (1070s). Their violence framed as protecting the faith and how politics and religious tension define warfare to protect interests of the Church.
Markward of Anweiler
Markward of Anweiler is a German (d. 1202) who challanged the papally supported regents in the kingdom of Sicily. Not afraid to fight to other Christians to ensure control and power - opportunity to remove threats to papacy power
Frederick II of Hohenstaufen
Frederick II of Hohenstaufen who was christian that challenged papal authority painted and was painted and was even linked as the Anti-Christ had a crusade called on him in the early 13th century. Threat to papacy authority = you are a obstruction to the cause of the holy land = you fight the whole church
Henry of Segusio (Hostiensis)
Henry of Segusio was a crusade preacher (c.1200-71) who developed the legal and theologian arguments for just war for crusaders. He finds how crusades can be justified and argues that its better to fight again heretics in Christendom rather than non Christians overseas and was later used in crusades against Christians.
Heresy, defined by shifting orthodoxy
The definition of Heresy especially in western Christendom would change based on the dominant religious authority deems it so during the 11th and 12th century. You could define Heresy for whatever political purpose you wanted or the fact that westerm Christendom was not united at all.
Perfecti and perfectae
Perfecti and perfectae (female version) were the faithful members of Cathar religion that became Good Men that acted as preachers and delivered sacramental rites. Became prominent in the mid 12th century. Threat to Catholicism - could build alternative religious community to rival the Catholic Church.
Peter of Castelnau
Peter of Castelnau was a pagal legate assassinated by an employee of Raymond VI who was increasingly seen by the pope as the supporter of the Cathar heretics in 1208. The assassination gave Innocent opportunity to launch full crusade against the Albigensians/Cathar heretics.
Sack of Béziers
Sack of Bezier was the massacre of inhabitants of Beziers by the crusaders that occurred in 1209. Killed everyone regardless of rank, sex or age -> black and white tone - for us or against us
Treaty of Paris 1229
Treaty of Paris in 1229 marked the end of teh Albigensian crusades when Raymond VII submitted to Capetian terms. Failed to fully root out heretics but shows how military and political power was used to achieve spiritual/religious goals.
Bishop Despenser’s crusade
Bishop Despenser preached about his crusade used a dramatic performance by carrying a large heavy cross at St Paul Cathedral in London in late 14th century. Used of symbolism to invoke support - to follow christ, you have to take up your cross.
Hussites
Hussites were a Czesh nationalistic movement rejected the Catholic Church’s authority and were against German influence and had crusades against them in the 15th century. Tension btw religion and regional politics -> Hussites were not just about religion but about locally identity and independence - nationalism being a hindrance to religion factors.
Bonizo of Sutri
Bonzio of Sutri wrote about the Civitate campaign of 1053 and focused on the martydom of Leo’s soldiers. Painted Leo’s soldiers as army of saints - dying for the defense of Christ, making it a holy war.
Pleichfeld according to Bernold of Saint Blasien
The battle of Pleichfeld in 1086 was how the army of saint peter who were outnumbered defeated the schismatics with God’s help. Painted the battle as that God was on their side, put trust in God, prayed before battle - they won because of their holiness
Paschal II’s letter to Robert of Flanders
Paschal II’s letter to Robert of Flanders written in 1103, where he apealed to Robert to send soldiers against the people of Liege. Attacking those who defied the church -> theme killing fake christians is just as important as the liberation of the Holy Sepulchre / war against simoniacs is just and holy
Militias, communitates patriae parrochiarum
Militias were communities of local people in France that priest would arrange so when called upon could accompany the king to battle. Militias were present at the siege of Le Puiset in 1111. Use of remission of sins for military recruitment/ God pleasing acts aka fighting for god will be rewarded with spiritual gifts aka remission of sins
Bishop Henry on battle of Nocera
Bishop Henry wrote a letter about the battle of Nocera detailing how the papal troops should fight back against Count Roger to defend the Church and to absolve their sins if they perish. Written in 1132. Letter help link absolution to the penitential system and just war themes.
Peter the Venerable
Peter the Venerable wrote a letter in early 12th century to Everard of Barre to convince him to allow Humbert III to fight against Christians in Burgundy. His argument of Christians that go against God is as bad or even worse than pagan that don’t know God - justification for crusades against Christians.
The routiers
The routiers were bands of mercenary soldiers that were causing trouble in France in the 12th century. The Archbishop William those who fight the rouiters would be given indulgence with no cross - crusade ideas/rewards for peace enforcement.
negotium pacis et fidei
Negotium pacis et fidei means business of peace and faith about how the Church needs to embark on a crusade to remove the Cathars and routiers to ensure peace and protect faith in early 13th century. Church duty/obligation to engage in warefare to protect the faith and ensure stability and order.
lay rulers in canon 3 of 4th Lateran Council
Canon 3 of the 4th Lateran Council laid down definitive guidelines for the suppression of heretics and for lay rulers who did not co-operate against heretics would be excommunicated and replaced with a new Catholic ruler but those who did would receive crusader indulgences. 13th century. cruade against heretics - Strengthen control and power of church
1217 English civil war
1217 English civil war was essentially a fight against the English Barons and King John and Pope Innocent III at first wanted to call a crusade against John but later changed his mind when he reconciled with John and nearly called Crusade in John’s favor. But john died, barons okay so now we fight french people.
1217 English Civil War - fight at Rye, the French and its King Louis vs English people and young Henry III, who had support of the pope used crusade ideas ie taking sign of cross. Nationalism/defending our lands using crusade rhetoric for support
Spain as a holy land and the impact of this idea
Spain was seen as a holy land by c.1500 as the Christians inhabitants saw themselves as the new Isarelites (New God’s chosen people). Impact of idea: If we are the chosen people of God, the land occupied by us are crusading kingdoms and thus are holy!! - Holy Land inherited by God as answered by Pope Clement in 1311
Florence´s civic exceptionalism
the cross acted as a sign both for the crusade and the city’s populace, participation in crusading provided opportunities to reinforce civic exceptionalism circa 1200. Crusade features becoming part of national identity (intertwining).
Royal holy warriors / kingdom’s holy warrior kings
The canonizaton of royal holy warriors and crusaders became widespread in the 12th century. Canonization of heros help strengthen national identity of emerging european kingdoms - rally people on shared religion and political cause
Louis IX of France
Louis IX of France (r. 1226 -1270) was known to be ‘the Most Christian King’ of France, pushed the idea was he is not king but it was the people and the people are the church and we shall fight for it .
Showing how ordinary people take up religious nationalism/ the king gives the people the religious right of the king
Agincourt
Henry V’s chaplain claim that King Henry before battle with France called his English soldiers as God’s people at Agincourt in 1415. Painted the notion that by fighting for England, they were also fighting for God.
The religious meaning of the French King´s coronation
The religious meaning of the French King’s coronation is about how the King is ordained and appointed by God and they have explicit duty to defend the faith. Ever since the middle ages from 9th century. French King has spiritual authority and relationship to God -> disobeying the King = disobeying God (so much control)
The Gallican church
The Gallican church is about the independent relationship of the catholic church in France and King as the King had power/authority over the Church by 1515. (early 16th century) (could nominate bishops ect) -> Rise of bishops who aren’t qualified to be bishops taking seats in the church/corruption of the church - Growth of royal power and using it for political means in religious institute or no difference btw state and church
The Placards Affair of 1534
The Placard affairs of 1543 is when a band of French Protestant exiles placed a great number of placards with arguments against the Catholic mass in the early hours of Sunday, where French Catholics would be going to mass. They attacked the Eucharist - something the King has did for his coronation = undermine his authority = bye bye
The social meaning of the Mass according to Bossy and Sabean
Responded back in 1534. The social meaning behind mass is that Mass help maintain peace and unity, i.e. people had to forgive their neighbors before taking part in the communion. The attack against the Communion was also an attack against the social bonds that help the community together.
The message of Francis I´s procession of January 1535
The message of Francis I’s procession is first to reaffirm about the legitimacy of the Eucharist by having the Corpus Christi, secondly showed how the monarch is a devout faith of the church (monarchy walked bareheaded - no crown) and lastly, and condemnation of the heretics (executed 6). This occurred on 21 Jan 1535. Any questions/challenge against the Holy Communion and by extension Catholicism, will be met with the Monarch and the Church.
The purpose of civil government for Jean (John) Calvin
Purpose of civil government has the duty of upholding social discipline, protect religious practices and the church and generally promote peace. He wrote this in mid 16th century. Authority of state came from God to maintain God’s order on Earth.
The French nobility and the geography of Calvinism in France
The french nobility allowed Calvinism to make Normandy a stronghold, with the help of the nobility by providing legitimacy and protection, the country side of Normany and the its southwest had strong Calvinism presence during the 1560s. Increasing amount of nobles converting to Calvinism -> threat to social and politcal order of the catholic King.
Anne du Bourg
Anne du Bourg, a vocal Protestant magistrate who in June 1559 had the temerity to insult Henry II when the king made a personal visit to the Parlement of Paris and was later burned at the stake for heresy. Calvinism has penetrated King Henry’s parelement.
The Parlement de Paris´ remonstrance against the Edict of Saint-Germain
The magistrates of the Parlement of Paris could not accept the Edict of Saint-Germain and wanted the Queen Mother to withdraw or alter it so that the crown would not be accused of harbouring heretics in the kingdom in 1562 (early 16th century). Threat of Huguenots to social andd politcal order + departure of tradition -> King’s (soon to be Charles IX) duty to exterminate heresy altogether
The Politiques
The Politiques is a term the Leaguers used to mock anyone who opposed their agenda separating the Catholics into two groups, used in 16th century. Saw them as obstacles -> politiques had sympathy for the heretics for not wanting to kill them all
Jean Boucher
Jean Boucher was a theologian and founding member of the Sixteen in paris wrote a influencial book named the just despostion of Henry III in 1589. Justified killing of the King as since the King broke his contract and people are Godly-ordained commonwealth -> people abv monarch -> duty of the individual to remove a tyrant that disrespected God.
The social and religious aims of the League
Religious aim to purify and cleansing the faith. Social aim: holy union with the people - maintain social order and cohesion. Late 16th century. They wanted to create a new society/word order - to be united under one true faith of catholism with strong spirituality and disciplined. - did it thank to God - God provided this
The League´s revolutionary dimension
The League’s revolutionary dimension was its dical political ideology that focused on tyrannicide and promotion of the people’s sovereignty to arms which peaked after the murder of Guises in 1588 (late 16th century). Shift of political ideology of supporting traditional monarchy to power to the people.
Henri de Navarre´s conversion to Catholicism
Henry’s conversion had politcal purpose of wanting to end the civil war by uniting France under the Catholic faith and restore monarchy authority. He converted in late 16th century. He put state, order and politics ahead of his religion as priority - willing at adapt his religious commitment.
