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A-level Geography > Migration, identity, and sovereignty > Flashcards

Migration, identity, and sovereignty Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an economic system?

A

Way to organise trade + industry in a country/globally

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2
Q

What is globalisation in the context of migration?

A

Process by which people/culture/finance/goods/info between
countries with few barriers
Widening and deepening of connections

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3
Q

What is Lee’s push-pull migration model?

A

Push factor: problems resulting in people wanting to migrate from origin
Pull factor: benefits that attract people to destination
Intervening obstacles: eases/hinders migration

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4
Q

How is migration linked to core-periphery systems?

A

Strengthened due to + feedback cycles
Increases polarisation + disparity

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5
Q

What is the positive feedback within core countries resulting from core-periphery migration?

A

Industrialisation → economic growth →jobs →outflow from periphery → further investment → knock on benefits

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6
Q

What are the case studies for RU migration and international migration?

A

Rural-urban: China
International: EU-Schengen

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7
Q

What are push and pull factors causing migration from rural to urban China?

A

Access to clean water limited, so drought threats
Mechanisation of agriculture

1978 open door policy, Shenzhen 1980 -> low tax + purpose-built infrastructure, attracts TNCs who outsource FDI -> increased urbanisation for higher paid + more stable jobs

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8
Q

Evaluate rural to urban migration in China

A

Hukou system requires domestic passports, so limits internal migration (although rules relaxing)

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9
Q

How does the EU-Schengen agreement allow for international migration?

A

Eases free movement as believes people an economic resource
Passports not usually shown at border of 26 countries that have agreed

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10
Q

Does the EU-Schengen agreement affect the UK?

A

No due to national sovereignty (taking back borders)

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11
Q

What is an example of a core-periphery system?

A

North-west of Europe eg: UK
South/east of Europe eg: Poland

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12
Q

What are positives and negatives of migration from Poland to the UK for Poland?

A

+ remittances
+ decreased job/resource pressure

  • smaller workforce decreases GDP
  • increased unemployment
  • demographic imbalance as young men move
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13
Q

What are positives and negatives of migration from Poland to the UK for the UK?

A

+ larger workforce increases GDP
+ reduced unemployment
+ enriched, diverse culture

  • money sent to source
  • increased resource pressure
  • loss of English feel
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14
Q

What % of the global population are migrants? What does this depend on?

A

3-4%
Attitudes and policies towards migration

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15
Q

What is Japan’s stricter migration policy?

A

‘pass-or-go-home’ test has success rate of <1%
Closed door with little change in attitude

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16
Q

What are demographic characteristics of Japan due to their strict migration policy?

A

Only 2.3% foreign born (5% in most advanced economies
Population and working age population falling: 29% >65

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17
Q

What is an alternative reason as to why japan has a lower foreign born population?

A

Japanese not a global business language

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18
Q

What is Singapore’s more liberal migration policy?

A

Open door due to past as a British colonial port
World’s 4th largest financial centre, lots of global businesses (thus families) relocate -> international schools

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19
Q

What % are foreign-born in Singapore?

A

40%

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20
Q

How is the pattern of international migration changing on a global scale?

A

Most moving south to north of Brandt line
More flow of migrations within south of Brandt line

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21
Q

What is the changing pattern of international migration in Asia?

A

Many leaving south Asia (poverty, natural disasters) to west Asia
eg: indians to UAE

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22
Q

What is the changing pattern of international migration in America?

A

Mexico to North America (as nearby and stark contrast in jobs/services/QUL)

South America to South Europe (language)

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23
Q

What is the changing pattern of international migration in Africa?

A

Many leave sub-Saharan Africa due to water drought

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24
Q

What is the changing pattern of international migration in Europe?

A

Eastern Europe to other parts of Europe (higher wage jobs, education)

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25
Q

What are environmental causes of migration?

A

Environmental refugees when agriculture not sustained due to desertification/drought
Natural disaster

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26
Q

Evaluate how environmental migration may change?

A

Increasing due to climate change
Seasonal + defined by climate

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27
Q

What are economic causes of migration?

A

Voluntary economic migrants for jobs

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28
Q

Evaluate how economic migration may change?

A

Recessions reduce migration eg: global financial crisis
Economic systems can quickly become unstable (black swan)
Possible globalisaton reverse
Can be followed by family

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29
Q

What are political causes of migration?

A

Refugees asylum seek for right to international protection after war/conflict

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30
Q

Evaluate how political migration may change?

A

Comes in waves/fluctuates
Larger role in Africa/middle east eg: 12 million displaced by Syrian war

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31
Q

What is the case study of complex causes of migration?

A

Mediterranean refugee crisis
- conflict
- poverty
- unstable politics
- jobs
- persecution

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32
Q

Who migrated in the Mediterranean refugee crisis?

A

Over 1 million in 2015 from north Africa + ME to claim asylum in Europe (Italy + Greece, then Germany)

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33
Q

Why were there tensions over the mediterranean refgee crisis?

A

Poor conditions: 3500 died from overcrowded boats at rough seas
A syrian reguee was a suicide bomber in Paris 2015

BUT: accepted asylum seekers formed <0.1% EUs population

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34
Q

What are 4 economic theories to explain economic migration?

A

Neoclassical economic theory
Dual labour market theory
New economies of labour market
World systems theory

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35
Q

How does the neoclassical economic theory explain economic migration?

A

People migrate from low to high wage areas

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36
Q

How does the dual labour market theory explain economic migration?

A

Migration due to pull factors, needed for jobs
People aware of this due to ICT advancements

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37
Q

How does new economies of labour migration theory explain economic migration?

A

Migration viewed on a societal level, eg: family supported by remittances

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38
Q

How does the worlds systems theory explain economic migration?

A

Migration viwed on global level, neocolonial ties = incentive to move to wealthier countries

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39
Q

How is economic efficiency maximised?

A

Pro-business policies:
Free trade
Deregulated financial markets
Open borders

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40
Q

How does free trade help maximise economic efficiency?

A

Economies of scale -> economic specialisation increasing trade abroad
Competition acts as incentive to cut costs

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41
Q

How does deregulated financial markets help maximise economic efficiency?

A

Removes red tape
Increases competition and innovation

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42
Q

How do open borders help maximise economic efficiency?

A

eg: Schengen
Use of people as an economic resource that can respond to supply and demand of skills
Move to where earn more

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43
Q

What is identity?

A

Sense of nation as a whole represented by distinctive trends/culture/language

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44
Q

What is sovreignity?

A

Authority of a state to govern within its borders

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45
Q

How do pro-business policies (maximising economic efficiency) pose challenges to national identity?

A

Resentment as leads to job/service pressre
No say over who forms identity

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46
Q

How do pro-business policies (maximising economic efficiency) pose challenges to sovreignity?

A

Government has decreased say, businesses may not make decisions in best intrest of countries
If in agreement to free trade, country can’t enforce tariffs/quotas even if benefits
Britain’s brexit ‘take back control’

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47
Q

What does the Friedmann core-periphery model suggest?

A

Mobility (flows of people/goods) increases overtime

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48
Q

How can maximising economic efficiency increase inequality between core and periphery regions?

A

Initial backwash creates periphery-core polarisaton
BUT: trickle down investment from core-periphery

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49
Q

What are some patterns of unrestricted regional movement of labour in the Uk?

A

Historical migration N→S
Lots flowing in/out of London
Peak migration age 19, also high in 20s/30s, children

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50
Q

Why is historical regional migration in the UK from north to south?

A

Deindustrilisation + spiral of decline, moved to service sector

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51
Q

Why do lots of migrants flow in/out of London?

A

Transport
Out (mostly to south-east retirees) as cheaper, downsizing

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52
Q

How does age impact regional movement of labour in the UK?

A

19- peak age due to uni
lots move in 20s/30s due to jobs
children due to family

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53
Q

What is the net migration in Brent? Why?

A

-2.5%
Expensive, populated, poverty, crime

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54
Q

What is the net migration in Horsham? Why?

A

+1.2%
Accessible commuter town, close but cheaper than London

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55
Q

What are the social cosenquences of unrestricted regional movement of labour?

A

Inward migration: increasing house price if demand not met, strain on services
Outward migration: skill shortages (brain drain), aging population

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56
Q

Why is movement of labour unrestricted in regions such as EU-Schengen?

A

Fills labour shortages
Remittances sent home supports family
Larger labour pool to choose from: can choose most qualified
Move for higher paid jobs, increases gov tax, firms become increasingly competitive and innovative

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57
Q

What are 3 barriers to free movement on a global scale?

A

Immigration policies: expensive + selective (although varies)
Political views: migratnts take native jobs/place stress on services BUT usually young so contribute more tax than withdrawn, although this means they have children too
State sovreignity: ability to enforce desicions

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58
Q

How is migration unevenly distributed in the UK?

A

Minority ethnic groups concentrated in big, urban cities

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59
Q

In the UK, give 5 reasons why minority ethnic groups are concentrated in big, urban cities

A

University international students (but maybe temporary)
Post WW2 needed rebuilding, ex colonies
High skilled to London financial centre
Transportation/accessibility
Anchoring → chain migration (positive feedback)

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60
Q

What is culture?

A

The adapting ideas/beliefs/cutoms/social behaviour of a group/society

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61
Q

What is ethnicity?

A

Social group usually identified by a distinctive culture/religion/language

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62
Q

What is assimilation? Which area has the lowest assimilation in the UK?

A

Gradual adoption of cultural traits belonging to the host majority by migrant minority
London

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63
Q

Where are White British peope concentrated in London?

A

Suburbs
Higher income, white flightnicer housing + green space

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64
Q

Where are Black Caribbean peope concentrated in London?

A

Inner city
TFL established large bus depot, post WW2 windrush

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65
Q

Where are Indians + Pakistani peope concentrated in London?

A

North west
Low-skill tertiary jobs eg: Heathrow airport

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66
Q

What are 4 factors affecting the rate of assimilation?

A

Time
Gender
Language proficiency
Origin/destination

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67
Q

How does time affect the rate of assimilation?

A

Longer = more assimilated
Pay gap with natives decreases overtime
Likely to disperse + establish overtime (eg: JFS Whitechapel → Camden → Kenton)
How long intending to stay influences incentive to assimilate

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68
Q

How does gender affect the rate of assimilation?

A

Mothers with infants stay at home → little social interaction
Mother with older children engage in school pick up, parents evening, bringing language home
BUT norms decreasing

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69
Q

How does language proficiency affect the rate of assimilation?

A

Increases with time
Increases participation in politics + media
Employment opportunities
Links to age: younger pick up quicker

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70
Q

How does origin/destination affect the rate of assimilation?

A

Policies for citezenship in host (eg: ‘Life in the UK test’)
Greater cultural gap → harder to bridge
Education levels influence pay gap

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71
Q

Where has migration caused political tensions?

A

Mexico-US border due to differing perceptions

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72
Q

What are percieved economic impacts of migration across the Mexico-US border?

A

✔ Immigrants contribute >$11bil in tax/year
✔✘ Send remittances to Mexico rather than spending in US
✘ Costs US for border control + prisons

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73
Q

What are percieved impacts on national security due to migration across the Mexico-US border?

A

✘ Unauthorised immigrants account for 3.5% of US population
✘ Mexico associated with drug trafficking -> smuggling

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74
Q

What are percieved cultural impacts of migration across the Mexico-US border?

A

✔ Culture enriched
✔ Spanish thus commonly taught in schools
✘ 67% limited English proficiency, higher % than other immigrants

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75
Q

What are demographic changes due to migration across the Mexico-US border?

A

13.5% of total population
✔ More are working age
✘ Many males leaving Mexico -> fertility issue
✘ 55% lack diploma

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76
Q

Evaluate the political tensions due to migration across Mexico-US border

A

Perceptions vary based on…

Who: manegerial in less job competition for jobs, democrat 2x more likely to say migrants strengthen country, older more racist
Where: south/west states disproportionately affected
Time: migration decreasing as Mexico improves, USA 1990s 65% wanted less immigration, now only 35%

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77
Q

How has the US foriegn born population changed overtime?

A

1850- mass migration for American Dream
Post WW2 migration
1965- Naturalisation Act (quota on Asian/African scrapped)
2012- Obama, DACA 800,000 to live + work
2017- Trump muslim travel ban
2018- Trump wall contrsuction
2021- Biden reversed policies

DREAM act failed to pass

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78
Q

What are 5 factors affecting the ability to migrate across national borders?

A

Level of income
Level of skill
Migration policies
Origin
Age

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79
Q

How does origin affect the ability to migrate across national borders?

A

Easier if English speaking country
Only certain countries on Youth Mobility Scheme

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80
Q

How does age affect the ability to migrate across national borders?

A

Youth Mobility Scheme easiest route
Older have more skills + savings

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81
Q

What is the change in the new UK migration system in regards to visas?

A

No cap on visas

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82
Q

What are 3 examples of pathways to migrating to the UK?

A

High value
Skilled workers visa
Youth mobility scheme

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83
Q

What is a ‘high value’ visa?

A

For innovation/investment
Easier as no sponser needed
eg: Russian Oligarchs

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84
Q

How does a skilled worksers visa work?

A

70 points
Up to 5 years, then permanent residency, after an additional 1y can obtain citezenship

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85
Q

What are 4 requirements for the skilled workers visa?

A

Job offer by approved sponser who cna’t hire a national
Skill level 3
Speak English
Minimum salary £38,700 (unless <26, STEM, shortage occupation list)

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86
Q

What is the additional fee for migrants on the skilled workers visa?

A

> £1000 health surcharge /y
Dependents almost £800 /y

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87
Q

How does the youth mobility scheme work?

A

18-30y
Lasts up to 2 years, can’t be renewed

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88
Q

What are 3 requirements for the youth mobility scheme?

A

£2500 in savings
£300 application fee
Health surcharge £470 /y

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89
Q

How does the youth mobility scheme differ from the skilled workers visa?

A

No dependents
Only from some countries (mostly commonwealth)

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90
Q

What are 3 positive stakeholder perspectives on the UK’s new immigration system?

A

Lots of highly qualifie, well-paid staff (tax)
UK regains sovreignity post-Brexit as EU migrants judged same as others
Easier to move as skill level reduced to only RQF L3

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91
Q

What are 2 negative stakeholder persoectives on the UK’s new immigration system?

A

Hard for cheap labour to migrate as lower skill (eg: Romania from EU)
Need to put social care jobs on shortage occupation list

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92
Q

What is a contrasting migration policy to the UK?

A

Japan: homogenous society
- traditionally isolated, limited trade online
- idea of accepting migrants only in 80s due to labour shortages
- difficult to obtain citenzenship

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93
Q

What are 2 issues with Japan’s strict migration policy?

A

Aging population increases dependency ratio (25% >65)
Shrinking population increases labour shortages, exacerbated as less have children

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94
Q

What is a nation state?

A

United political entity operating as a complete unit, with sovereignty over its borders, and a collective idenity

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95
Q

What is the timeline of the rise of the modern nation state?

A

Pre 1400s: World as village
Late 1400s: European monarchs consolidating power
1533: Henry VIII breaks with CofE
1648: 30y war
Late 1600s-early 1700s: Louis XIV mapping of France
Late 1700s: Declaration of independence + French revolution
1800s: Unification of Germany + Italy

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96
Q

Describe the pre 1400s with the world as a village

A

People rarely left so identified with region or local lord
Catholic church held wide-ranging power

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97
Q

Give 2 examples of European monarchs beginning to consolidate power in the late 1400s

A

Spanish expulsion of Muslims + Jews
Henry VII wins war of roses so develops English state

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98
Q

When Henry VIII broke with the CofE in 1533, what happened?

A

Reduced influence of pope
English loyalty and rise of Protestantism

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99
Q

What was the 30y war in Europe about, and when did it end?

A

Catholics vs protestants
Ended in 1648 with Treaty of Westphalia- decreed that sovereign ruler of state had power over all elements of nation

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100
Q

What are 2 national sovereign states that vary greatly in ethnic, cultural, and linguistic unity?

A

Iceland
Singapore

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101
Q

What is the % foreign born in Iceland compared to Singapore?

A

16% vs 40%

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102
Q

What is the rate of population growth in Iceland compared to Singapore?

A

Iceland <1% /y
vs
Singapore 5% /y

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103
Q

When did Iceland and Singapore gain independence?

A

Iceland gained independence from Denmark in 1944
Singapore gained independence as an ex-British colony in 1965

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104
Q

Compare the location/degree of isolation of Iceland and Singapore

A

Iceland: mid-Atlantic ocean
Singapore: city state at top of Malaysian peninsular

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105
Q

Describe linguistic/ethnic/cultural unity in Iceland

A

Major language Icelandic (hard to learn)
Major religion Christianity
Child names selected from approved list

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106
Q

Describe the low degree of linguistic/ethnic/cultural unity in Singapore

A

Lots of major languages including: English, Malay, Manderin
Lots of major religions including: Christianity, Islam, Hinduism
4 distinct ethnic areas eg: China town

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107
Q

What are natural borders?

A

Physical geography presents natural obstacles to communication/transport

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108
Q

What are geometric borders?

A

Formed by arcs or lines of latitude/longitude regardless of physical and cultural features

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109
Q

What is the difference between colonialism and imperialism?

A

Colonialism- practice of acquiring control over another country
but
Imperialism- ideological policy of extending a country’s power/influence

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110
Q

What is an example of borders formed from colonial history?

A

African- reults in much more ethnic borders than national borders

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111
Q

What is an example of conflict when ex-colonial powers didn’t take into account different ethnic groups?

A

Rwanda: Germany controlled, then Belgium: favouroured Tutsi minority over Hutu majority

Independence in 1962: contested government
Hutus rebelled and killed elite Belgiums + Tutsis

Plans to introduce multi-party gov, but Rwandan president shot down by a plane in 1994 -> genocide of 800,000 Tutsis, and also Hutus

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112
Q

What are 2 examples of borders created to resolve political crises?

A

N/S Korea: latitude 38ºN, heavily militarised to end proxy war
N/Republic of Ireland: 1921, not currently militarised

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113
Q

Why are there many contested borders of nation states?

A

Possession of natural resources
Ethnic nationalism
Unclear treaties

Thu, invasions occur to assert sovereignity

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114
Q

What is an example of a:
Contested border
Contested existence of nation state

A

Contested border- Ukraine/Crimea/Russia
Contested existence of nation state- Taiwan

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115
Q

What % of Crimea are ethnic Russians?

A

60%

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116
Q

What is a migration pattern as a result of the Russia/Ukraine conflict?

A

Ukraine outward migration for new Western identity

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117
Q

How does China view Taiwan?

A

Breakaway province that will be part of China again

118
Q

How does Taiwan view itself as its own state?

A

President Chen openly backed independence, shocked China
Disputes led to Taiwanese ally US deferring China’s attacks (and its rise as an emerging power)

119
Q

What is nationalism?

A

One’s loyalty + pride to country, surpassing other intrests

120
Q

How was 19th century nationalism important in the development of empires?

A

British empire- strong sense of nationalism, particularly in imperial era
Important in maintaining global dominance via hard + soft power

121
Q

Where was 19th century nationalism a source of conflict in Europe?

A

Napoleonic Wars 1805-1815
Conflict between rival European powers

122
Q

Where was 19th century nationalism a source of conflict ‘beyond’ as other nations became part of larger empires?

A

Indian rebellion
WW1

123
Q

What happened in the Napoleonic war?

A

France became nationalist power with emperor Napoleon’s ambition to expand to Europe
Conquered most of Western Europe by 1912, failed attempt to conquer Russia
Let to congress of Vienna- no one power could dominate others

124
Q

What were the deaths as a result of the Napoleonic wars?

A

3.5mil military deaths
3mil civilian deaths

125
Q

What was the conflict regarding the Indian rebellion?

A

Refused to use rifle cartridges lubricated with animal lard (religiously impure)
Many imprisoned, and fought
Eventually Indian defeat

126
Q

How many died from the Indian rebellion?

A

800,000

127
Q

In counter to the Indian rebellion, which rebellion was successful?

A

Haitian slave revolt
Led to independence

128
Q

How was nationalism a main cause of WW1?

A

European powers has strong nationalist sentiment from overconfidence of past expansion and prosperity
Investment of imperial profits in military, nationalist loyalty meant many willing to fight

129
Q

At which points in history was there a spike in the number of nation states created?

A

Post Napoleonic war
Post WW1
Post WW2
Fall of USSR

130
Q

When empires grew, what happened?

A

Powers expanded eg: Scramble for Africa
Developed a sense of nationalism + loyalty (conflicts)

131
Q

Since 1945, why have empires fell?

A

Needed money to rebuild post WW2, couldn’t maintain colonies
Shifting ideology post WW2 gave rise to independence movements

132
Q

As empires disintegrated/fell, what happened?

A

Decolonisation, winds of change

133
Q

Why was decolonisation not smooth?

A

Messy/violent eg: India/Pakistan
Underdeveloped + weak economic/political systems

134
Q

What was the consequence of underdeveloped + weak economic/political systems from a not smooth decolonisation transition?

A

Local powers seen as illegitimate → power vacuum → genocide eg: Rwanda
Vulnerable to neocolonial influence of superpowers

135
Q

What was the conflict in Vietnam after decolonisation?

A

Vietnamese nationalists controlled north and challenged French rule as other Asian states gained independence

But, US controlled south and worried about spread of communism

17ºN parallel

136
Q

When fighting to reunify N/S Vietnam after decolonisation, what were 3 human costs?

A

Widespread starvation
1.3 mil died
Many children born with defects

137
Q

When fighting to reunify N/S Vietnam after decolonisation, what were 3 economic costs?

A

Agriculture disrupted (links to starvation)
Bombing in the north destroyed industrial infrastructure
Low GDP/capita

138
Q

When fighting to reunify N/S Vietnam after decolonisation, what were 3 environmental costs?

A

26 million craters in ground
Herbicide sprayed over south (links to defects)
Vegetation burned

139
Q

When was the British Nationality Act in place?

A

1948-71

140
Q

What did the British Nationality Act allow?

A

Citizens of ex colonies (broadly white settlers) entitled to British nationality: free movement with no application

141
Q

Why was the British nationality Act put into place?

A

Post WW2 rebuilding need and labour shortages
NHS + TFL established

142
Q

Which type of migrants move to the UK in the post-colonial era?

A

Mainly economic

143
Q

1947 allowed which group of post-colonial migrants to the UK?

A

Polish resettlement act: servicemen and families, as an ally

144
Q

1951-71 allowed which group of post-colonial migrants to the UK?

A

1 million Irish migrants: economic recession there, jobs here

145
Q

1950s-80s allowed which group of post-colonial migrants to the UK?

A

Cold war refugees eg: Vietnam

146
Q

Which treaty was established in 1992 allowing post-colonial migrants to the UK?

A

Maastricht Treaty- free labour movement in EU

Although, countered by Brexit in 2020/1

147
Q

2015-16 allowed which group of post-colonial migrants to the UK?

A

Mediterranean crisis refugees

148
Q

2021 allowed which group of post-colonial migrants to the UK?

A

Hong Kong Visa (as an ex colony)
200,000 to UK

149
Q

UK’s policies towards migration have resulted in what?

A

Cultural heterogeneity: society with high level of cultural/ethnic diversity amongst citizens

150
Q

How has the population of non-white in the UK changed from 1991-2011?

A

7% → 14%
Still a minority

151
Q

In the UK, which is the fastest growing minority?

A

Africans- doubling each decade due to…
- youthful (birth > death rate)
- continued immigration

152
Q

How has ethnic group mixing changed in the UK?

A

Increased to over 1 million

153
Q

What are the spacial trends regarding ethnic minorities?

A

Clustered in dense urban areas (London)
eg: Indians in Brent
eg: Africans in Hackney

BUT: clustering on decline → less segregation

154
Q

What are issues with obtaining ethnicity data from the UK census to assess cultural heterogeneity?

A

Hard to compare overtime…

Ethnicity is multifaceted + fluid + subjective
Changes in question phrasing

155
Q

What are tax havens?

A

Low income/corporate tax rates to attract wealthy expatriates + TNCs to register themself/their HQ there

156
Q

How is the rise of tax havens linked to the decline of the British Empire?

A

Decolonisation caused panic for wealthy people- wanted to protect earnings from millionaire tax by moving assets offshore
Scattered islands wanted to keep imperial ties to London, but with reduced economic dependence

157
Q

What are the Paradise papers?

A

Leaked documents exposing financial activities of celebs/ politicians/ TNCs
Eg: Apple + Nike used offshore tax havens to avoid tax

158
Q

Give background on the tax haven Cayman Islands

A

3 Caribbean islands
68,000 and growing population

159
Q

How many registered companies are in the Cayman Islands?

A

Over 100,000

160
Q

How are financial services crucial to the Cayman Islands’ economy?

A

Provides 55% of GDP
Employs 35% of population

161
Q

What is the personal and corporate tax rate in the Cayman Islands? Why is this good for them?

A

0%
Increases disposable income or profit

162
Q

How do tax havens result in growing global inequality?

A

Non-tax havens receive less tax (services decline)
Rich get richer (small, elite minority), poor get poorer

163
Q

How do NGOs feel about tax havens?

A

Object as they increase the risk of corruption and hiding money

164
Q

How have TNCs such as Starbucks reacted to citizen-led protests regarding tax havens?

A

‘Voluntary’ tax donations to recover public confidence

165
Q

What is the Washington Consensus?

A

Beleif that economic efficiency is only achieved through deregulation + privitisation
Has accelerated globalisation, but contributed heavily towards global financial crisis

166
Q

Which country has adopted a more sustainable, socialist-left, alternative model to tax havens?

A

Bolivia
Nationalising industries (eg: oil, gas), as previously TNCs owned 82%

167
Q

What are some benefits of Bolivia’s alternative model to tax havens?

A

Economic growth >4%/y
Poverty fallen 60% - 35%
Gini coefficient fallen (more equal), poor faced biggest improvement

168
Q

What are some weaknesses of Bolivia’s alternative model to tax havens?

A

Still very low GDP/capita
Reliant on primary resources subject to the boom-bust commodity cycle

169
Q

What are 3 environmental functions of the UN?

A

UN environment programme
Annual COP
IPCC

170
Q

What are 5 economic functions of the UN?

A

World Bank
IMF
WTO
WHO
UN Development programme

171
Q

What are 2 political functions of the UN?

A

UN peacekeeping force eg: Israel-Arab
International criminal court

172
Q

What are 2 general geopolitical visions of the UN?

A

2015 Millenium Development Goals
2030 Sustainable Development Goals

173
Q

Evaluate whether the UN has grown in importance

A

51 members in 1945, now 193
Although, size of SC broadly the same

174
Q

How is the UN’s role in governance affected by different geopolitical views of security council members?

A

Permanent members have veto rights
Results in disagreements, political stalemate, ineffective decision making

175
Q

Who vetos the most?

A

USSR in rejecting new members
US during the cold war, supporting allies in proxy warfare
Still today due to Russia/Ukraine and Israel/Palestine conflict

176
Q

Now, are the Security Council passing more resolutions than previously?

A

Yes- more important role in global governance

177
Q

What are the 2 ways in which the UN can intervene in the defence of human rights?

A

Economic sancions
Direct military interventions

178
Q

Where did the UN use economic sanctions to defend human rights?

A

Iran
Trade embargo (oil) until their attempts to build nuclear weapons is ceased
Sanctions extended when Iran didn’t respond

179
Q

What was the success of the UN’s economic sanctions on Iran?

A

Success as annual GDP fell by 5%

180
Q

Where did the UN use direct military intervention to defend human rights?

A

Bosnia
Ethnic cleansing of Bosnian Serbs against Bosnian Muslims
UN created designated safe zone for Muslims, protected by peacekeepers

181
Q

What was the success of the UN’s direct military intervention in Bosnia?

A

Failure
Town seized by Serb forces, food low -> starvation
8000 massacred, 23000 deported, many raped
Dutch peacekeepers outnumbered, many taken hostage

182
Q

What is unilateral action?

A

Military intervention by a state/group outside of UN

183
Q

What are 3 examples of unilateral action?

A

US: post 9/11 ‘war on terror’ counterterrorism campaign
UK: proposed action on failed state Syria
Unilateral action against Russia

184
Q

What was the unilateral action of the US post 9/11 ‘war on terror’ counterterrorism campaign?

A

Coalition of forces invaded Iraq and deposed government
UN initially supported based on existence of weapons of mass destruction, but proved wrong

185
Q

What was the impact of the unilateral action of the US post 9/11 ‘war on terror’ counterterrorism campaign?

A

Power vacuum → militant groups (eg: ISIS) emerged
Regional proxy wars

186
Q

What was the proposed unilateral action of the UK on the failed state Syria?

A

Condemn use of chemical weapons by Syrian government
Argued a legal basis for humanitarian intervention

187
Q

Why did the UK intend to pose unilaterally against Syria?

A

Knew it would be vetoed through UN

188
Q

Why did the UK not act unilaterally against Syria? What was the impact of this?

A

Parliament voted against it
UK set back

189
Q

What was the unilateral action of the west (eg: US, UK, Aus) on Russia?

A

Imposed sanctions on politicians, preventing travel and freezing overseas financial assets
When Russia vetoed UN’s ‘territorial integrity of Ukraine’, sanctions strengthened

190
Q

What was the impact of the unilateral action of the west on Russia?

A

Russia decreased oil/gas dependence (although EU still imported), diversified economy
Greek fruit sales to Russia decreased 50% → Russian farmers developed larger home markets

191
Q

How is the Washington consensus achieved?

A

IMF + WB + WTO limit protectionist policies (although arguably to protect the hegemony of the US)

192
Q

What do the WB IMF and WTO do?

A

World Bank- LT development + fighting poverty
IMF- fights financial crises around the world (shift towards developing + emerging)
WTO- formulates trade policy + settles disputes

193
Q

How does America assert dominance over the global economic system?

A

Dominance of US$ as a currency of trade
Forces countries to open up to trade that benefits US TNCs
Higher say in voting rights

194
Q

What theories of development can America’s dominance over the global economic system be linked to?

A

Frank’s dependency
Rostow’s Take Off (as a Western model)

195
Q

Which 2 policies means that the economies and economic sovereignty of developing countries is disputed?

A

Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs)
Highly Indebted Poor Countries initiative (HIPC)

196
Q

What are Structural Adjustment Programmes?

A

Due to intrest rates for developing countries’ loans increasing in the 80s
Now must make concession (eg: privatisation, trade liberalisation) for loans

197
Q

What are the consequences of SAPs for the developing world?

A

Neocolonialism exacerbates poverty
Decreased sovereignty as open up to Western TNCs/FDI

198
Q

What is an example of a semi-successful SAP loan?

A

Uganda 1987
Due to primary economy, poor infrastructure

199
Q

What were 2 success’ of Uganda’s SAP loan?

A

Income/capita increased 40%
Increased public spending on healthcare

200
Q

What were 2 failures of Uganda’s SAP loan? Why?

A

Rural income/capita only increased 4% (uneven regional development)
Progressive reduction of export taxation decreased food security -> malnutritation

Liberalisation works better in an already developed domestic market

201
Q

What is an example of a complete failure from the SAP loan?

A

Jamaica
Economy shrank and debt increased

202
Q

What is the Highly Indebted Poor Countries initiative?

A

Debt relief
So no poor country has an unmanageable debt burden
Must commit to poverty reduction through policy changes

203
Q

Were are HIPC policies used motsly?

A

Africa + Caribbean + Asia due to them being ex-colonies and taking loans when gaining independence
Some (eg: Somalia) doesn’t meet conditions due to conflict and corruption

204
Q

Are HIPC policies effective?

A

Yes
Decreased money spent on debt (only 2%)
More spent on poverty reduction (10%)

205
Q

Who criticises HIPC policies?

A

NGOs as they don’t reduce the full debt burden

206
Q

What has been created as the WTO failed to deliver on global free trade?

A

Regional trade blocs

207
Q

How are regional trade blocs tied to sovreignity?

A

Economies of scale give a comparative advantage
Foreign goods flood home markets, degree of economic sovereignty is given up for the benefits

208
Q

What are 2 trade blocs with varying levels of integration?

A

NAFTA: removed internal tariffs
EU: common market + currency + political legalisation

209
Q

What are the 2 forces that play a role in being a part of regional trade blocs?

A

Centrifugal: forces that divide/separate
Centripetal: forces that hold together and unite

210
Q

What are global commons?

A

Global resources so large they’re outside political reach of any one state

211
Q

What is the tragedy of the commons?

A

Individuals with access to a public resource act in their own intrest, spreading negative effects across larger population

212
Q

What is the international agreement concerning the quality of the atmosphere?

A

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: 1987

213
Q

What is the international agreement concerning the quality of the biosphere?

A

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITIES): 1975

214
Q

What does the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer do to protect the atmosphere?

A

Phases out production + consumption of ozone-depleting substances eg: chlorofluorocarbons in aerosol sprays
Necessary as hole in the ozone layer lets harmful sun rays in (UV)

215
Q

Has the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer been successful?

A

Most successful treaty due to world support
Decreased use of chlorofluorocarbons
ozone layer shrinking + expected to be fully closed by 2050

216
Q

What does the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora do?

A

Ensures trade of wild animals/plants doesn’t threaten survival (sustainable conservation)

217
Q

Has the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora been successful?

A

183 countries signed
37,000 species protected by managing what can/can’t be traded

BUT: hard and costly to inspect goods at borders

218
Q

Which law have IGOs developed for managing oceans?

A

UN convention on the law of the sea: 1994

219
Q

Which law have IGOs developed for managing international rivers?

A

Helsinki Water Conservation rules: 1996

220
Q

Which law have IGOs developed for managing the state of the environment?

A

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: 2001-5

221
Q

What is the UN convention on the Law of the Sea?

A

EEZ 200 nautical miles from continental shelf, where country has control
Needed as oceans >70% of earth and key to sustaining life

222
Q

Has the UN convention on the Law of the Sea been a success?

A

Yes generally as rules followed
BUT some overlap: Arctic, South China Sea

223
Q

What is the Helsinki Water convention?

A

Strengthens cooperation
Fosters implementation of IWRM + bi/multilateral agreements
Requires transboundary water use in a reasonable, equitable way
Needed as 40% of world’s population live in basin, so conflict needs to be prevented

224
Q

Was the Helsinki Water convention been successful?

A

42 countries signed
Sometimes conflict when dams built
Dependent on good relationships between countries

225
Q

What was the Millennium ecosystem assessment?

A

Multi-scale assessment to quantify damage to the ecosystem and value of services
Needed as over the past 50y, humans have changed ecosystems rapidly + extensively

226
Q

What was found in the Millennium ecosystem assessment?

A

60% of ecosystem services depleted: growing significantly due to gain in human wellbeing
Degrading is disproportionately in poor countries: growing inequality

227
Q

What is the timeline of managing Antarctica?

A

Sightings in 19th century
First reached by Norwegian explorer in 1911
By 1950, 12 nations had scientific bases (claims)
Antarctic Treaty signed now by over 50 countries
24 nations added protocol in 1991 to ban oil _ mineral exploitation for 50y

228
Q

Where does the Antarctic Treaty cover?

A

All areas below latitude 60º south

229
Q

What are some features of the Antarctic Treaty?

A

Freedom of scientific investigation + cooperation
Peaceful purposes only
Territorial claims frozen

230
Q

Why is the Antarctic Treaty under threat?

A

Has oil and gas reserves
Increased tourism
Climate change

231
Q

What are the 3 factors reinforcing nationalism?

A

Education
Sport
Political parties

232
Q

How is British nationalism reinforced through education?

A

Curriculum
History: teaches national stories and traditions
Citizenship: teaches legal + human rights and responsibilities

233
Q

How is British nationalism reinforced through sport/culture?

A

Different levels…

England in World Cup
GB in Olympics
UK in Eurovision

234
Q

In the 2012 Olympics, how was British nationality reinforced through features of the opening ceremony?

A

Horse + carridge
Industrial revolution
Queen + corgis
NHS
Harry Potter

235
Q

How is British nationalism reinforced through political parties?

A

Reinforcing British values: David Cameron’s speech

  • freedom
  • tolerance
  • responsibility
  • upholding law
  • union flag
  • football
  • fish and chips
236
Q

How is identity and loyalty tied to the distinctive legal system and method of governance in the US?

A

Declaration of Independence, Bill of Rights, Constitution
Democracy: ‘life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness’

237
Q

How is identity and loyalty tied to the distinctive legal system and method of governance in France?

A

French revolution overthrew monarchy for democratic republic
‘Liberty, equality, fraternity’ onto stamps + coins

238
Q

How is identity and loyalty tied to the distinctive legal system and method of governance in the UK?

A

Magna Carter: all, including the King, subject to the rules of law

239
Q

How is identity and loyalty tied to the national character of France?

A

Importance of freedom -> ban on burqa as a symbol of female oppression
Controversial as it limits the freedom to dress how one wants

240
Q

How is identity and loyalty tied to the English countryside landscape

A

Source of patriotic pride
- poems
- source of propaganda for WW1 army recruits
- Council for the protection of rural England
- green belts to prevent urban sprawl

241
Q

Evaluate how the English Countryside landscape contributes to identity and loyalty?

A

Largest factor
But varies by age: (90% 65+) (60% 18-24)
But now less interacting with countryside due to urbanisation

242
Q

How has English national identity changed overtime?

A

Limited role of religion: lots secular
Global + varied tastes in food: now strong spices
Less distinct regional dialect

OVERALL: higher diversity, less stereotypes

243
Q

What are some of the processes that operate in the change of English national identity overtime?

A

Globalisation
Open door policies
IT + media
Internal travel

244
Q

How does globalisation contribute to multi-national countries?

A

Globalisation → countries interconnected → heterogenous society, many dif ethnicities → national identity more contested + elusive

245
Q

How does ethnic origin differ from perceived identity? (idea of pick n mix)

A

60% say English only
20% say British only

Older less likely to say ‘British’

56% of Asians British (accommodating + attractive label)

246
Q

Give an example of a brand people thought were British made

A

Dyson 32%
Malaysian

247
Q

Due to Britain’s industrial heritage and many being confused about which brands were actually British made, what NGO was formed?

A

Made in Britain
Educated public about brands that are actually British through a liscenced logo to focus customer spending

248
Q

Why was the NGO Made in Britain needed?

A

Many UK companies owned through mergers & acquisitions or sovereign wealth funds

249
Q

What % of businesses are foreign owned? Which industries in particular?

A

Increase to 1.4%
Water, energy, car manufactoring, trains

250
Q

What is the process of foreign ownership of previous UK companies?

A

Removal of regulations → widespread privatisation, over £60bil state assets sold

251
Q

What is the UK’s current stance on foreign ownership of companies?

A

Foreign ownership welcomed (unless there is a national/finacial security or media plurality at risk)

252
Q

What is the National Security and Investment Act that is currently in the UK?

A

Requires notifications of acquisions and investments within 17 sectors

253
Q

Who owns Jaguar Land Rover? Why?

A

Acquired by Tata as Ford struggled in the global financial crisis

254
Q

How does Tata manage Jaguar Land Rover?

A

Modernised + vertically integrated production, low labour cost increases profit
Marketed luxury brands to growing Indian upper class
Aims to preserve + build on British heritage and competitiveness

255
Q

Evaluate foreign ownership as a threat to British national identity?

A

Uneven (more in London)
Businesses dominate, large proportion GDP (28%)
Financial security threat: puts British jobs at the whim of profit concerned foreign ownership
Two-way street: Britain doing same abroad

256
Q

How is westernisation a threat to UK identity?

A

Reorganisation of urban structure/decentralisation
Huge shopping centres eg: Westfield, Meadowhall
Enclosed + AC + Clean → decline of highstreet
Global brands replace independent businesses

257
Q

How is westernisation a threat to the identity of other world regions?

A

Entertainment
Disney: promotes Christmas, economic success + social mobility represented
Apple: Valentines day in Apple calander
ALTHOUGH: selling valtentines cards/items banned in parts of Pakistan

258
Q

Evaluate Westernisation as a threat to nationalism?

A

Opposition (eg: censorship, migration policies)
Glocalisation
Hybridisation

259
Q

What is the impact of foreign ownership to property + land?

A

London’s most expensive neighbourhoods empty as a secondary residence
Reduced community, reduced contribution to local economy

260
Q

How has the number of homes under foreign ownership changed?

A

Increased 3x in last decade

261
Q

How much has the Qatar Investment Authority invested in foreign property in the UK?

A

£40 billion

262
Q

What does the foreign Qatar Investment Authority own?

A

12% stake in Barclays
Highest shareholder in Sainsburys
Shapes skyline: Shard, Canary Wharf
Lots of 5* hotels eg: Ritz

Also: Indian real estate

263
Q

How does foreign ownership of property + land impact on British identity?

A

Pushes house price, outpricing native brits
Reduced identity and community spirit
Demographic changes → changes to shops + services

264
Q

Spatially evaluate how foreign ownership of property + land impacts British identity

A

Mostly in London, then the SE
85,000 properties in London: most in Westminster

265
Q

What is the difference between a nation and a state?

A

Nation: group with no fixed territory, not created consciously
State: legal, fixed territory

266
Q

What is secession?

A

Act of separation of part of a state to create a new independent country

267
Q

Why do places want secession?

A

Wide range of cultural differences
Historically different city states until later united
Shifting borders from war

268
Q

How do nation states respond to secession?

A

Give power to region to reduce tension

269
Q

What are 2 examples of strong nationalist movements seeking to create independent, smaller states whilst remaining within larger trading groups?

A

Catalan Independence movement
Scottish Independence referendum

270
Q

What % of people in Catalonia want independence?

A

71%, but less vote

271
Q

What are the 3 reasons why Catalonia wants independence from Spain?

A

Money
Language
Respect

272
Q

Why does Catalonia want independence from Spain due to money?

A

Tourism/manufacturing hub contributes disproportionally to GDP + services: 20% of Spain’s wealth

273
Q

Why does Catalonia want independence from Spain due to language?

A

75% speak Catalan, but not the main language

274
Q

Why does Catalonia want independence from Spain due to respect?

A

Claims independence as a democratic right

275
Q

What was the consequence of Catalonia wanting independence from Spain?

A

2017 referendum deemed as illegal by Spanish government
Spanish police deployed to prevent independence votes, police beating voters and jailing pro-independence politicians

276
Q

Why does Scotland want independence from the UK?

A

Culturally different (eg: Gaelic) so wants representation in parliament
Have been treated poorly in past (eg: kilts burned)

276
Q

What was the response of the UK to Scotland wanting independence?

A

Devolution
Some power transferred from Westminster to Scotland (eg: education system)
Results in a complex identity/sovereignty as still have British passports

277
Q

What was the consequence of Scotland wanting independence from the UK?

A

Scottish national party established 1998
Cameron let independence referendum pass as he thought it would fail (it did)

278
Q

What is the consequence of globalisation and sustained economic growth in emerging nations?

A

Uneven distribution of benefits
Certain regions/ethnicities benefit disproportionally

279
Q

What are the political tensions in Brazil from the uneven distribution of the costs and benefits of globalisation?

A

US$22 bil for World Cup
Money should’ve been spent reducing internal issues eg: poor services
Favelas demolished → many displaced → violence

280
Q

What are the political tensions in Russia from the uneven distribution of the costs and benefits of globalisation?

A

As the world’s largest state, many ethnic groups are spatially and socially distant from Moscow
Eg: Inuit spread across Arctic circle

281
Q

What are the political tensions in India from the uneven distribution of the costs and benefits of globalisation?

A

Partition of India by British lawyer visiting for 5 weeks, displacement → violence
Caste system divides rich/poor

BUT: still a shared nationhood eg: Cricket

282
Q

What are the political tensions in China from the uneven distribution of the costs and benefits of globalisation?

A

Hukou system
Rural → urban migrants deprived of full benefits of Chinese citizenship eg: deprived of healthcare/housing

BUT: growing pressure to change rules

283
Q

What are the political tensions in South Africa from the uneven distribution of the costs and benefits of globalisation?

A

From opening up markets
White male larger income
Black significantly lower, despite being largest (and growing) population
Resentment → conflict

284
Q

What is a failed state?

A

Political/economic system so weak that government isn’t in control over territory/ decisions/ services
Small elite has power

285
Q

How does colonialism and neocolonialism play a role in failed states?

A

Colonial powers’ role in border drawing sets up preconditions for failure
Ongoing neocolonial exploitation, and proxy warfare, exacerbates failure

286
Q

What are 6 impacts of a failed state?

A

Weak identity
Lack of sovereignty: power vaccum
Outmigration

Civil war + terrorism
High poverty (disease, reduced LE)
TNCs dissuaded from investment

287
Q

What is an example of a failed state?

A

Syria: civil war 500,000 died

288
Q

How does the failed state Syria have a powerful elite?

A

Nepotism, economy largely run by entrepreneurs associated with ruling family

289
Q

How does the failed state Syria have national disunity?

A

Up to 1000 armed opposition groups eg: ISIS, Islamic Jihad
Ethnically divided population

290
Q

How does the failed state Syria show to have a weak government?

A

Economic liberalisation occurred without legal basis/rules

A-level Geography (8 decks)

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