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A-level Geography > Coasts > Flashcards

Coasts Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the littoral zone?

A

Wider coastal zone stretching into the sea and onto the shore. Dynamic interaction in the littoral zone leads to rapid change.

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2
Q

What are the 5 parts of the literal zone, from land to sea?

A

Coast
Backshore
Foreshore
Nearshore
Offshore

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3
Q

What is the foreshore?

A

Zone between high and low tide mark

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4
Q

What are the 3 reasons as to why the littoral zone is a dynamic zone of rapid change?

A
  1. Marine + terrestrial processes operate + interact
  2. Extreme events
  3. Varying human development
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5
Q

What is the difference between a primary and a secondary coastline?

A

Primary- formed via river deposition/volcanic lava
Secondary- formed via marine erosion/deposition

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6
Q

What are the 3 short-term processes used to classify coasts?

A

River inputs (extent of deposition)
Waves (high/low energy)
Tides (high/low range)

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7
Q

What are the 2 long-term criteria used to classify coasts?

A

Geology (hard/soft rock)
Sea level change

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8
Q

In terms of the UK, where are rocky coastlines / coastal plains found?

A

Rocky- north-west UK
Plains- south & east of UK

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9
Q

What are 5 features of a rocky coast?

A
  1. Erosion dominant but slow
  2. Erosional features
  3. Geology resistant to erosion
  4. High-energy environment
  5. High or low relief
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10
Q

What are 4 features of a coastal plain?

A
  1. Depositional features
  2. Formed by coastal accretion
  3. Low-energy environment
  4. Low relief
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11
Q

What are the 2 types of coastal plains?

A

Sandy (marine deposition)
Estuarine (river deposition)

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12
Q

What is coastal accretion?

A

Continuous net deposition of sediment, leading to seaward growth, stabilised by vegetation

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13
Q

How does the cliff face differ between rocky and plain cliff profiles?

A

Rocky- steep face
Plain- curved, lower angle face

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14
Q

What is a concordant coastline, and give an example

A

Alternating layers of geology are parallel to the coast
Eg: south coast of Dorset

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15
Q

What is a discordant coastline, and give an example

A

Alternating layers of geology are perpendicular to the coast
Eg: east coast of Dorset

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16
Q

What are the 2 types of concordant coastlines?

A

Dalmation and Haff

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17
Q

Where are Dalmatian and Haff coastlines found?

A

Dalmatian- Croatia
Haff- Baltic sea

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18
Q

How are Dalmatian coasts formed in 3 steps?

A
  1. Folds are parallel to the coast (concordant)
  2. Tectonic folding caused ridges (anticlines) and valleys (synclines) parallel to the coast
  3. At the end of the glacial period, sea level rose leaving narrow islands
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19
Q

How are Haff coasts formed in 2 steps?

A
  1. In glacial period, seawater level was lower and meltwater rivers deposited thick layers of sand + gravel to outwash plains
  2. In interglacial, sea level rise and constructive waves pushed the sand ridge to form a bar and traps river water (lagoon/Haff)
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20
Q

How is the formation of headlands and bays an example of a negative feedback loop in 2 steps?

A
  1. Coastal retreat occurs due to alternating bands of hard/soft rock
  2. Headlands protrude and are more exposed to erosion, accentuated by wave orthogonals and wave refraction
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21
Q

What is geological structure?

A

Layout of geology in coastal zone

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22
Q

What are the 6 elements that geological structure consists of?

A

Strata
Bedding planes
Joint
Folds
Faults
Dips

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23
Q

What are bedding planes?

A

Horizontal cracks, natural break in strata due to the gap in time between rock formation

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24
Q

What are strata?

A

Layers of rock

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25
Q

What are joints?

A

Vertical cracks, fractures from contraction as sediment dries out, or tectonic uplift

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26
Q

How are folds created?

A

Pressure during tectonic activity makes rocks buckle and crumble

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27
Q

How are faults created?

A

Pressure on a rock exceeds its internal strength so fault slips along fault planes

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28
Q

What is a dip?

A

The angle at which rock strata lie

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29
Q

What are the 5 types of dips?

A

Horizontal strata
Gentle seaward dip
Steep seaward dip
Rocks dip inland
Rocks dip inland with joints

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30
Q

Describe horizontal strata and the risk of erosion with this dip

A

Steep cliffs
Fairly stable so low risk of erosion

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31
Q

Describe gentle seaward dip and the risk of erosion with this dip

A

Almost vertical joints opened by weathering + pressure release
Risk of erosion from gravity

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32
Q

Describe steep seaward dip and the risk of erosion with this dip

A

Rock slabs slide down cliff along bedding planes
Risk of erosion due to gravity

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33
Q

Describe rocks dip inland and the risk of erosion with this dip

A

Stable, steep cliff profile
Low risk as stable

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34
Q

Describe rocks dip inland with joints and the risk of erosion with this dip

A

Well-developed joints at a right angle to bedding plane
Fairly stable, but some risk as joints act as slide planes

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35
Q

What are the 3 steps as to how a wave-cut platform is formed?

A
  1. At high tide, destructive waves hit the base of the cliff, and hydraulic action and abrasion form a wave-cut notch
  2. The wave-cut notch undercuts cliff leaving destabilised overhang
  3. The overhang collapses, and the cliff retreats leaving a wave-cut platform
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36
Q

What are the 4 steps as to how a cave/arch/stack/stump is formed?

A
  1. Rocks have joints/faults (eg: limestone), hydraulic action and abrasion create cave
  2. Two caves join or one erodes through creating an arch enlarged at the base
  3. The top of the arch becomes unstable and collapses leaving a stack
  4. The stack is vertically eroded to form a stump visible at low tide
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37
Q

What is an example of a WCP on the Jurassic Coast?

A

Kimmeridge bay

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38
Q

What is an example of folds on the Jurassic Coast?

A

Lulworth crumple

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39
Q

What is an example of an arch on the Jurassic Coast?

A

Durdle Door

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40
Q

What is an example of a concordant feature on the Jurassic Coast?

A

Lulworth Cove (chalk behind stops retreating, so expanding horizontally)

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41
Q

What is lithology?

A

The physical properties of a rock

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42
Q

What are the 3 types of bedrock lithology?

A

Igneous
Metamorphic
Sedimentary

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43
Q

How is igneous rock formed?

A

Cooling + solidifying of lava/magma either intrusive or extrusive

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44
Q

What are 3 examples of igneous rock?

A

Granite
Basalt
Pumice

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45
Q

What is the rate of erosion for igneous rock?

A

Very slow (less than 0.1cm/year)

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46
Q

Give 2 reasons why the rate of erosion for igneous rock is very slow

A

Composed of interlocking crystals making strong hard rock
Few joints/weaknesses that erosion would exploit

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47
Q

How is metamorphic rock formed?

A

Recrystallisation of igneous/sedimentary rock via heat and pressure, occurs deep at plate boundary

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48
Q

What are 3 examples of metamorphic rock?

A

Marble
Slate
Schist

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49
Q

What is the rate of erosion for metamorphic rock?

A

Slow (0.1-0.3 cm/year)

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50
Q

Give 3 reasons why the rate of erosion for metamorphic rock is slow

A

Crystalline so resistant
Foliation, crystals orientated in same direction, weaknesses
Heavily folded + fractured

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51
Q

How is sedimentary rock formed?

A

Compaction + solidification of deposited sediments

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52
Q

What are 4 examples of sedimentary rock?

A

Sandstone
Limestone
Chalk
Shale

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53
Q

What is the rate of erosion for sedimentary rock?

A

Moderate to fast (0.5-1 cm/year)

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54
Q

Give 3 reasons why the rate of erosion for sedimentary rock is moderate to fast

A

Most are clastic, broken pieces of old rock
Age, rock is younger so weaker
Many bedding planes and fractures

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55
Q

What is lithification?

A

When unconsolidated material is compacted + cemented to become consolidated sedimentary rock

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56
Q

What is unconsolidated material?

A

Younger, loose material that hasn’t compacted so is vulnerable to erosion

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57
Q

What is pore water pressure, and how could this lead to potential erosion in a complex cliff profile?

A

Pressure water experiences due to the weight of the water above it
Can lead to a line of weaknesses

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58
Q

How can groundwater flow through rock layers weaken rock?

A

Removes cement that binds sediment together
Also creates high pore water pressure

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59
Q

What is permeable rock, and give 2 examples

A

Allows water to flow through
Eg: sandstone, limestone
Unconsolidated material is porus

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60
Q

What is impermeable rock, and give some examples

A

Doesn’t allow groundwater flow
Eg: clays, mudstones, metamorphic + igneous

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61
Q

What are 3 ways in which vegetation can stabilise coastlines?

A

Plant roots can bind sediment together to reduce erosion
Leaves can slow wind speed at ground level, reducing erosion and increasing deposition
Plants die, adding humus (organic matter) to the soil

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62
Q

What are pioneer species?

A

First plants to colonise freshly deposited sediment

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63
Q

What is a climatic climax community?

A

Final community adjusted to climatic conditions of the area

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64
Q

What is the term for a sand dune succession?

A

Psammosere

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65
Q

What type of plants colonise sand dunes and why?

A

Xerophytic plants (dry tolerant)

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66
Q

Describe the sand dune succession

A

Embryo dunes → fore dunes → yellow dunes → grey dunes → dune slack → pine woodland

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67
Q

Why are there non-xerophytic plants towards the end of sand dune successions?

A

Improved nutrients (humus)
Above high tide, less saline
Improved water retention

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68
Q

How does soil pH change in dune successions as soil has more humus?

A

8.5 → 4.5

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69
Q

What are 3 examples of plants in a dune succession?

A

Marram grass
Gorse
Heather

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70
Q

What is the term for a salt marsh succession?

A

Halosere

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71
Q

What type of plants colonise muddy salt marshes and why?

A

Halophytic (salt tolerant)

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72
Q

Describe the salt marsh succession

A

Algal → pioneer → lower salt marsh/establishment → stablisation →higher salt marsh/climax

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73
Q

What may be found at the climax of a salt marsh succession?

A

Deciduous oak forest

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74
Q

What are 3 examples of plants in a salt marsh succession?

A

Eelgrass
Cord grass
Sea aster

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75
Q

How do waves form in 3 steps?

A
  1. Wind creates frictional drag with the sea surface, which builds up
  2. Shallow continental shelf creates friction with the sea bed, the circular orbit becomes increasingly elliptical
  3. Wavelength shortens and the amplitude of the wave increases until the crest outruns the trough and breaks forward
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76
Q

What are the 4 factors affecting wave size?

A
  1. Strength of wind
  2. Duration of wind blowing
  3. Water depth
  4. Wave fetch (distance travelled)
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77
Q

What are 5 features of constructive waves?

A
  1. Low-energy waves
  2. Shallower + gently sloping nearshore
  3. Long wavelength (up to 100m) but low frequency (6-8/min)
  4. Low amplitude (<1m)
  5. Swash > backwash as low angle of wave impact
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78
Q

As constructive waves cause beach gain, what feature is formed?

A

Berms

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79
Q

What are 5 features of destructive waves?

A
  1. High-energy waves
  2. Deeper + steeper nearshore so more circular orbit
  3. Short wavelength (20m) but high frequency (13-15/min)
  4. High amplitude (>1m)
  5. Backwash > swash as it interrupts swash
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80
Q

As destructive waves cause beach loss, what feature is formed?

A

Offshore bars

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81
Q

What happens in summer to beach morphology?

A

Swash from constructive waves deposits larger material at the beach, creating a berm which weakens the backwash

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82
Q

What happens in winter to beach morphology?

A

Strong backwash transports and deposits sediment to form an offshore bar

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83
Q

How do beach sediment profiles vary?

A

Course + heavy sediment at the top of the beach (eg: gravel, shingle)
Finer sediment lower down the beach

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84
Q

What are tides?

A

The rise and fall of sea levels caused by gravitational pulling force exerted by the moon (and sun) and Earth’s rotation

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85
Q

What is a tidal range?

A

Height difference between low and high tide

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86
Q

Why do tides occur?

A

Centrifugal forces and gravity in opposite directions results in a bulge of water around earth

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87
Q

Why do tides vary daily?

A

Earth’s rotation means coastal locations past bulge 2x/day, so 2 high tides and 2 low tides
Earth and moon move slightly in their orbit, changing tide times slightly

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88
Q

Why do tides vary monthly?

A

Spring tide is highest high tide 2x/month, combined gravitational pull of sun and moon
Neap tide is lowest high tide 2x/month, solar tide not alined so decreased tidal range

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89
Q

How will beaches vary over longer periods?

A

Climate change, extreme weather means more winter profiles
Management interferes with sediment supply, decreasing beach size

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90
Q

How does hydraulic action work?

A

Air is trapped in cracks, compressed by waves which forces the crack open, it widens and this repeats

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91
Q

What is the influence of lithology on the impact of hydraulic action?

A

Heavily joined sedimentary vulnerable
Very hard igneous has cooling cracks, HA likely only process operating

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92
Q

How does abrasion (corrasion) work?

A

Sediment that waves pick up is thrown against the cliff

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93
Q

What is the influence of lithology on the impact of abrasion?

A

Softer sedimentary more vulnerable
Loose sediment must be available

Also, wave type + energy important

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94
Q

How does attrition work?

A

Eroded sediment is moved by waves, collisions chip rock to make smaller + rounded

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95
Q

What is the influence of lithology on the impact of attrition?

A

Softer rocks rapidly reduce in size, contribution to beach formation

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96
Q

How does corrosion (solution) work?

A

Alkaline rocks/binding cement is dissolved by sea + rain water

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97
Q

What is the influence of lithology on the impact of corrosion?

A

Mainly limestone as vulnerable to weak acids

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98
Q

What 2 things are erosion influenced by?

A

Waves
Lithology

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99
Q

What are the 4 transportation processes?

A

Traction
Saltation
Suspension
Solution

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100
Q

What are the factors that influence sediment transportation?

A

Angle of wave attack
Longshore drift
Tides
Currents

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101
Q

How can the angle of wave attack influence sediment transportation?

A

Determines the direction of sediment transportation
Swash aligned- wind directly on shore at 90° angle
Drift aligned- wind at an angle, leads to LSD, dynamic

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102
Q

What is longshore drift, and how can this process influence sediment transportation?

A

Net lateral transport of material when waves are at an angle
Swash transports material obliquely, with 30° the strongest move
Gravitational backwash moves sediment back down beach

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103
Q

How do tides influence sediment transportation?

A

Changes in sea level creates tidal currents
Transports sediment in the near/offshore
High tidal range = more powerful waves

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104
Q

What are currents and how do they influence sediment transportation?

A

Flow of water in a particular direction
Driven by winds, or temperature/density/salinity differences
Transports sediment in near/offshore
Can also be rip currents

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105
Q

When does deposition occur?

A

When waves no longer have sufficient energy for transportation

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106
Q

What are the 7 distinctive depositional coastal landforms?

A

Bayhead beaches
Recurved/double spit
Barrier beaches/bars
Barrier island
Offshore bars
Tombolo
Cuspate foreland

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107
Q

How are bayhead beaches formed, and give an example of one

A

Sediment accumulates at the back of a bay, by constructive waves, wave refraction disperses wave energy
Morfa Harlech, Wales

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108
Q

How are recurved spits formed, and give an example of one

A

Drift-aligned feature as coastline changes direction and sediment continues to deposit.
2 dominant wind directions lead to recurve, can also recurve via wave refraction depositing landwards
Hurst Castle spit

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109
Q

How are double spits formed, and give an example of one

A

2 spits from north/south ends of a bay
Poole Harbour

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110
Q

How are barrier beaches/bars formed, and give an example of one

A

Spit extends across a bay, or a ridge is driven back by constructive waves to form lagoon
Chesil Beach Dorset with Fleet lagoon

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111
Q

How are barrier islands formed, and give an example of one

A

Beach is separated from mainland, common in low tidal range with gently sloping offshore coastline
Large scale along Dutch coast

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112
Q

Where are offshore bars formed, and give an example of one

A

Where destructive waves break
Scroby Sands, Norfolk wind farm

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113
Q

How are tombolos formed, and give an example of one

A

Island causes wave refraction, so depositional
or
LSD builds spit across to island
Portland Bill to mainland Dorset

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114
Q

How are cuspate forelands formed, and give an example of one

A

Longshore drift from opposing directions
or
Converging of 2 spits- Dungeness Kent

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115
Q

What is the sediment cell concept?

A

Closed coastal subsystem of sediment sources, transfers and sinks along a coastline

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116
Q

How can you define a source in the sediment cell concept?

A

Releases more sediment than it absorbs

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117
Q

How can you define a transfer zone in the sediment cell concept?

A

Predominately sediment movement

118
Q

How can you define a sink in the sediment cell concept?

A

Absorbs more sediment than it releases

119
Q

What are 4 examples of sources?

A

Cliff erosion/sub-aeriel processes
River erosion
Aeolian sediment from land
Offshore bars

120
Q

What are 3 examples of transfers?

A

Longshore drift
Currents + (rip)tides
Swash/backwash

121
Q

What are 4 examples of sinks?

A

Backshore- sand dunes
Foreshore- beaches
Nearshore- bars
Offshore- barrier islands

122
Q

Give a real-world example of the sediment cell concept

A

Flamborough head –> Holderness coast –> Spurn head

123
Q

What is dynamic equilibrium in the sediment cell concept?

A

Inputs and outputs of sediment are equal so the size of landforms in the transfer zone remain the same

124
Q

How do negative feedback loops rebalance systems in the sediment cell concept, using 2 examples?

A

Cliff collapses → eroded material protects coast from further erosion
Sand dune erosion → growth of offshore bar → barrier to destructive waves

125
Q

How do positive feedback loops increase the original change in the sediment cell concept, using 2 examples?

A

Wind erosion removes stabilising vegetation → more erosion even in low velocity wind
Groynes trap sediment → terminal groyne syndrome → sediment starvation

126
Q

What is the sediment budget?

A

Difference in the volume of sediment in a system and the sediment entering/leaving
Can be neutral/positive/negative

127
Q

What is weathering?

A

The gradual breakdown of rock, in situ, creating sediment which the sea uses to erode the coast

128
Q

What are the 3 types of mechanical weathering?

A

Freeze-thaw weathering
Salt crystallisation weathering
Wetting and drying

129
Q

How does freeze-thaw weathering work in 3 steps? What are 2 conditions increasing the likelihood of this occurring?

A
  1. Water enters a crack/joint
  2. Water freezes and expands by approximately 10%, and this pressure results in cracks widening
  3. This process repeats, and angular rock fragments collect at the bottom of the cliff as scree

Climate must have temperature that fluctuates both above and below 0°C
More likely in permeable/porous rock eg: chalk

130
Q

How does salt crystallisation weathering work in 2 steps? What are 2 conditions increasing the likelihood of this occurring?

A
  1. Saltwater penetrates cracks/pores at high tide
  2. Evaporates at low tide, leaving salt crystals to grow and exert stresses in rock, breaking into angular fragments

Porous + fractured rocks eg: sandstone

131
Q

How does wetting and drying work in 3 steps? Mention what type of rocks this occurs in

A
  1. Rocks rich in clay (eg: shale) are soaked at high tide and expand
  2. At low tide, the minerals dry and shrink
  3. Repeated expansion and contraction cycles results in rock fragmenting and crumbling
132
Q

What are the 3 types of chemical weathering?

A

Carbonation
Hydrolysis
Oxidation

133
Q

How does carbonation work? What type of rock increases the likelihood of this occurring?

A

Weak acid rain mixes with calcium carbonate to form easily soluble calcium bicarbonate solution

Carbonate/sedimentary rocks eg: limestone

134
Q

How does hydrolysis work? What type of rock increases the likelihood of this occurring?

A

H+ ions in water breaks down materials to form a clay and new solution

Igneous and metamorphic rocks containing feldspar

135
Q

How does oxidation work in 2 steps? What type of rock increases the likelihood of this occurring?

A
  1. Oxygen combines with iron-based minerals in rock
  2. Iron oxide is created, increasing volume leading to rock breakdown

Rocks with iron compounds eg: sandstones, shales

136
Q

What are the 2 types of biological weathering?

A

Plant root
Rock boring

137
Q

How do plant roots lead to biological weathering in 3 steps? Where is this a key process?

A
  1. Roots grow into cracks/fissures
  2. Roots expand and thicken
  3. The tensional force widens cliff and angular fragments break away

Important on vegetated cliff tops- can lead to rockfalls

138
Q

How does rock boring lead to biological weathering? What type of rock is this likely to happen with? Where is this a key process?

A

Species (eg: molluscs) scrape at rocks with sharp shells, for food or home

Softer, sedimentary rock eg: shale
Foreshore as marine animals

139
Q

What is mass movement?

A

Downslope movement of material when gravitational forces exceed resisting forces

140
Q

What are the 4 factors that mass movement is influenced by?

A
  1. Angle of slope/cliff
  2. Rock type + structure
  3. Vegetation cover
  4. Wetness of ground
141
Q

What are the 4 mass movement processes?

A
  1. Blockfall/rockfall
  2. Landslides
  3. Rotational slumping
  4. Flows
142
Q

What is blockfall/rockfall, and why does it occur?

A

Small stones/larger rocks fall rapidly
Occurs when strong + jointed steep cliffs are exposed to mechanical/ freeze-thaw weathering
or
By marine erosion undercutting the cliff (wave-cut notch)

143
Q

How do landslides work, and what can promote them?

A

Mechanical weathering/marine erosion undercutting alongside gravity works along a slip plane
Rain can lubricate slide plane and reduce resistance
Occurs on jointed rock with seaward dip

144
Q

What is rotational sumping, on what rock type does it occur, and what is it facilitated by?

A

Single mass moves slowly on a curved rock plane
Occurs in weak rock, or with complex geology eg: permeable strata over impermeable beds
Facilitated by water (added weight and lubrication)

145
Q

What are flows (mass movement) and how to they work? What can contribute to them?

A

Earthflows (more vigorous + larger sediment) /mudflows occur when fine/unconsolidated sediment mixes with water, so is saturated and flows downslope
Heavy rain + high tide contributes

146
Q

What landforms are created by rotational slumping?

A

Rotational scars + terraces

147
Q

What landform is created by rockfall?

A

Talus scree slopes, with large boulders at core and smaller material on top

148
Q

What are the 2 types of longer-term sea level rise?

A

Eustatic
Isostatic

149
Q

How can eustatic sea level rise occur?

A

At end of glacial period, land ice melts and returns to sea, lead to rise of approx 120m

Temperature increases, so thermal expansion occurs (heat results in the volume of ocean water increasing)

150
Q

How can eustatic sea level fall occur?

A

During the glacial period, water evaporated and froze as land ice

151
Q

How can isostatic sea level rise occur? (fall in local land level)

A

Subsidence- deposition or buildings leads to crustal sag

Post-glacial adjustment

152
Q

How can isostatic sea level fall occur? (rise in local land level)

A

Accretion in sink regions builds up land

Post-glacial adjustment

153
Q

In the glacial period, how was the UK adjusted?

A

The weight of the land ice in the NW depressed the crust
Forced solid lithosphere down, and as rigid, SE uplifted in the see-saw effect
The NW covered in ice up to Birmingjam

154
Q

How has post-glacial adjustment occurred in the UK?

A

Melting of land ice, so NW crust is rebounding upwards by 1.5mm/year
UK is pivoting, south lowering by 1mm/year

155
Q

How have tectonics caused eustatic sea level rise? Give an example

A

Rising magma at constructive margins/hotspots lifts crust, reducing global capacity of the ocean
0.1mm eustatic rise in the Indian Ocean

156
Q

How have tectonics caused isostatic sea level change? Give an example

A

Folding of sedimentary rock -> anticlines and synclines -> fall + rise

Lava/ash produces fall eg: Hawaiian island chain

157
Q

When do emergent coastlines appear?

A

When a fall in sea level exposes land previously covered by sea

158
Q

What can be seen at emergent coastlines?

A

Raised beaches
Fossil cliffs

May see raised stacks/stumps

159
Q

When do submergent coastlines appear?

A

When a rise in sea level floods the coast

160
Q

What are the 3 types of submergent coastlines?

A

Ria
Fjord
Dalmation

161
Q

What do rias look like? Where can one be found?

A

Steep-sided V-shaped valleys
Plan profile mirrors meander course with tributaries

South coast of Devon

162
Q

How are rias formed?

A

Rivers erode the valley into frozen landscapes in a periglacial (cold) climate
Sea floods a river valley

163
Q

What do fjords look like? Where can one be found?

A

Steep straight-sided U-shape valley with a shallow entrance

West coast of Norway, 205m long

164
Q

How are fjords formed?

A

Glacial erosion cuts deep into landscape
Glaciers truncate spurs for a direct downslope route (straight sides)
Sea floods glacial valley

165
Q

How are Dalmatian coasts formed (submergent coastline) in 2 ways?

A

Series of river valleys flooded that flow next to coast
or
Tectonic folding

166
Q

What is the IPCC?

A

Intergovernmental panel on climate change

167
Q

What are the IPCC’s predictions for how global warming can contribute to eustatic sea level rise?

A

50% due to melting of land ice
40% due to thermal expansion

10% due to tectonic activity -> geothermal heat -> eustatic rise

168
Q

By how many metres have sea levels risen since the last Glacial?

A

125m

169
Q

What is the IPCC’s new prediction for sea level rise? Why has this changed?

A

In 2013, between 28cm-98cm rise by 2100
Rate of sea level rise is increasing

170
Q

Give 3 reasons as to why there is uncertainty in the IPCC’s predictions for sea level rise?

A

Uncertain about relationship between GHGE increase and global warming

Uncertain about the rate of population growth + economic growth affecting GHGE

Uncertain about political commitment to reductions in GHGE

171
Q

What places are most at risk from sea level rise?

A

Low-lying coastlines/islands
eg: Maldives

172
Q

What are the 2 physical reasons for rapid coastal recession?

A

Geological
-lithology
-geological structure

Marine
-fetch
-strength of LSD

173
Q

What are the 3 human actions causing rapid coastal recession? How do these actions cause the recession?

A

Dredging
Dams
Groynes

Interrupts sediment cell cycle, leading to sediment starvation

174
Q

What is dredging and why is it done?

A

Sediment is scooped/sucked up for construction or boat navigation

175
Q

What do dams do?

A

Store water and generate electricity, but traps river sediment

176
Q

What do groynes do?

A

Wooden structure built to limit the movemnt of sediment

177
Q

What happened to erosion rates in the Nile Delta? What is another factor that influences erosion rates?

A

Aswan High Dam constructed reducing sediment volume from 130 million tonnes/year to 15 million tonnes/year
Erosion rates from 25m/year to over 200m/year
But is on low lying land

178
Q

Dredging in California has led to what % of the coastline facing critical erosion? What is an alternative explanation for this?

A

81%
Also ‘el niño’ storms and soft sandstone cliffs

179
Q

What are 6 players that may alter natural systems?

A

Businesses
Residents
(Local) governments
Farmers
Mining industry
Environmentalists

180
Q

What are 2 short-term factors that can affect the rate of erosion?

A

Tides
Weather systems/storms

181
Q

How can tides affect the rate of recession short-term?

A

Daily high tide x2 increases cliff erosion
Monthly spring tide x2 increases recession

182
Q

How can storms affect the rate of recession short-term and medium-term?

A

During + after events larger waves attack + soak cliff

More storms in winter

183
Q

What are 2 long-term factors that can affect the rate of erosion?

A

Wind direction + fetch
Sea-level rise

184
Q

How can wind direction + fetch affect the rate of recession long-term?

A

A dominant prevailing wind direction with a larger fetch leads to more coastal recession

185
Q

Why is the Holderness coast the fastest retreating coastline in Europe?

A

Low-pressure weather system- more storms, even more in Winter
Swell/current circle the UK and adds energy to the waves
In an enclosed sea with nowhere to dissipate energy

186
Q

What are 3 local factors that increase flood risk on some low-lying and estuarine coasts?

A

Height
Degree of subsidence
Vegetation removal

187
Q

How can height (of land) increase flood risk?

A

Low-lying coastlines are at temporary risk from storm surges, but also permanent risk from global sea level rise

188
Q

How does height in the Maldilves affect flood risk? What have they done to combat this?

A

Highest point is only 2.3m above sea level
The capital Male is protected by a 3m high sea wall

189
Q

In Bangladesh, how can height affect flood risk?

A

60% is less than 3m above sea level

190
Q

What is subsidence?

A

The settling and compaction of sediment

191
Q

How can subsidence increase flood risk?

A

Deltas experience isostatic subsidence, and the crust depresses
or
Groundwater abstraction reduces sediment volume

192
Q

How has subsidence affected Bangladesh?

A

50 large islands in the delta have subsided 1.5m since 1960

193
Q

How does vegetation removal increase flood risk?

A

Salt marshes + mangrove forests no longer trap sediment + stabilise existing sediment, also won’t absorb wave energy

194
Q

How are mangrove forests being removed in Bangladesh?

A

71% retreating by 200m/year

195
Q

What is a storm surge?

A

Temporary rise in sea level caused by storms

196
Q

What are 5 dramatic short-term impacts from the UK/Netherlands 2013 storm surge?

A

1000 homes flooded
2 died
All rail services cancelled in Scotland
Thames Barrier + Eastern Scheldt storm surge barrier closed
£100mil in UK damage

197
Q

What are 5 dramatic short-term impacts from the Bangladesh 2007 cyclone Sidr?

A

Infrastructure + electricity damaged
Up to 10,000 died
Coastal and river embankments breached –> flooding + drinking water polluted
Sanitation infrastructure destroyed, risk disease
Almost US$30 mil damage

198
Q

What are the 2 types of storms?

A

Tropical cyclones 8°-20º N/S of equator by the evaporation of warm sea water
Mid-latitude depressions by the meeting of hot and cold air

199
Q

Is the data between climate change and tropical storm frequency clear?

A

No
Atlantic storms have a slight positive correlation, but no clear trends in other areas

200
Q

Why is it hard to predict how climate change may affect the pace and magnitude of coastal flood risk?

A

Low evidence for the predicted increase in storms (although high evidence for the predicted increase in sea level)

furthermore…
-complex physical systems
-thermal expansion poorly understood
-will people and governments change?

201
Q

How may human geography worsen storms?

A

Population growth
Development
Land use (deforestation)
Coastal management

202
Q

Via mitigation, how can the effects of climate change be reduced?

A

Decarbonising
-reduce fossil fuel use
-increase use of renewable energy

203
Q

Via adaptation, how can the effects of climate change be modified?

A

Large sea walls
Reafforestation

204
Q

Why are geographers pro-mitigation with some adaptation?

A

Although expensive, mitigation is an investment and is also becoming cheaper

205
Q

What are 4 economic losses from coastal recession?

A

Housing
Businesses
Agricultural land
Infrastructure

206
Q

What are 3 social losses from coastal recession?

A

Relocation
Loss of livelihood
Amenity value

207
Q

What is the economic loss of the lifeboat centre (infrastructure) under threat at the Holderness? What is the social loss of this (livelihood)?

A

Can’t guide ships with goods to Humber Estuary
Safety jeopardised

208
Q

Why is the tourism industry (business) disrupted in the Holderness?

A

Erosion of beach dangers Tunstall caravan site

209
Q

Which road (infrastructure) of economic importance is under threat from recession in the Holderness?

A

Main road by Hornsea and Withernsea

210
Q

How much agricultural land is lost to coastal recession /year in the UK? What is the knock-on effect of this?

A

80,000m²
Farmers give up some of the best land to diversify

211
Q

What is the economic loss regarding houses in an area of coastal recession?

A

Hard to get mortgages on properties, especially with no hard engineering- people trapped

212
Q

What is the economic cost that Easington Gas Terminal is under threat (infra/business)?

A

Supplies 25% of GB’s gas

213
Q

Why do people relocate (social loss) due to coastal recession?

A

Houses falling into sea

214
Q

How many villages have been lost in the Holderness from coastal recession (social loss)?

A

32 since Roman time, 3 under threat

215
Q

What is amenity value? How can coastal recession impact this?

A

Place has worth as generates pleasant feelings
Loss of homes + community = loss of amenity value

216
Q

How have farms been impacted in the Holderness from coastal recession?

A

Ringborough farm loses 1-2m/y, diversified to gas
Loss of livelihood for small farms

217
Q

Which part of the Holderness coast hasn’t had major economic/social losses due to hard engineering protection?

A

Mappleton

Improved local community
Businesses had confidence to invest- local economy grew

218
Q

What are environmental refugees?

A

People forced to leave home due to sudden/LT changes in their local environment, compromising well-being/secure livelihood

219
Q

How many environmental refugees does IPCC predict to have by 2050- why?

A

200 million
Climate change is increasing sea level rise leading to:
- Flooding
- Saltwater encroachment
- Coral Bleaching (a sea defence)

220
Q

What are the 2 case studies for environmental refugees?

A

Pacific SIDS- Tuvalu
Fairbourne, Wales

221
Q

Give background for Tuvalu, where there are environmental refugees

A

Population 11,000
Mostly 1-2m above sea level
Very remote for tourism, ignored
May be inhabitable in 50-100 years

222
Q

What are 4 reasons why there are environmental refugees in Tuvalu?

A

Weather becoming less predictable
Fish poisoned from algae from bleached coral, can poison humans
High population density- no space for relocation
Lacks funds for coastal defenses

223
Q

Give background for Fairbourne, Wales, where there are environmental refugees

A

Population 1000
UK’s very first environmental refugees

224
Q

What are 2 reasons why there are environmental refugees in Fairbourne?

A

Increasingly regular flooding, ferocious storms
Sea wall may be swept away

225
Q

Why is it hard for people to become an environmental refugee from Fairborune?

A

Hard to sell homes (or get mortgage!)
Hard to relocate in Wales as English speaking

226
Q

What is hard engineering?

A

Traditional management for recession/flooding by directly altering or stopping physical processes

227
Q

What are 5 hard engineering strategies for coasts?

A

Groynes
Sea walls
Rip rap
Revetments
Offshore breakwaters

228
Q

How do groynes work?

A

Traps sediment moved by LSD, creating a beach where waves crash- not at cliff

229
Q

What are 3 advantages of groynes?

A

Beach build up has tourism potential
Works with natural processes to build beach
Cheaper than sea wall (£2500-5000/m)

230
Q

What are 3 disadvantages of groynes?

A

TGS starves beaches downdrift as interrupts LSD
Unattractive + unnatural

231
Q

How do sea walls work?

A

Physical barrier that reflects/dissipates waves

232
Q

What are 3 advantages of sea walls?

A

Very effective
Long-lasting
Promenade to walk on good for beach access

233
Q

What are 3 disadvantages of sea walls?

A

Expensive to build + maintain
Intrusive + unnatural
Can reduce sediment supply as reflects, doesn’t deposit

234
Q

What is rip rap and how does it work?

A

Large igneous/metamorphic rock in front of cliff, acts as a permeable barrier to break up + dissipate waves

235
Q

What are 2 advantages of rip rap?

A

Relatively cheap to construct + maintain
Used for fishing/tourism

236
Q

What are 2 disadvantages of rip rap?

A

Rocks don’t fit in with local geology
Dangerous for people clambering

237
Q

What are revetments and how do they work?

A

Sloping concrete/wood at cliff/beach to break up + absorb wave energy

238
Q

What are 2 advantages of revetments?

A

Relatively cheap
Can be used to protect sand dunes/mud banks too

239
Q

What are 2 disadvantages of revetments?

A

High maintenance, especially wood
Intrusive + unnatural

240
Q

What are offshore breakwaters?

A

Partly submerged igneous/metamorphic rock barrier to break up/absorb waves before they reach the coast

241
Q

What are 2 advantages of offshore breakwaters?

A

Improves safety for tourism/sports
Effective permeable barrier

242
Q

What are 3 disadvantages of offshore breakwaters?

A

Usually unappealing, especially at low tide
Can be bad for navigation
Interferes with sediment transport

243
Q

What is the 1949 coastal protection act?

A

Local authorities decide which areas to protect- in Holderness this is mainly 3 main population centres

244
Q

How have Hornsea and Withernsea (2/3 main population centre) been protected?

A

Sea walls
Groyne field
Rip rap

245
Q

How and why has Mappleton been protected?

A

Singlar rock groyne
Rip rap
Due to main road with regional importance

246
Q

How has Easington gas terminal been protected?

A

Sea walls
Groynes
Rip rap

247
Q

What place is affected by groyne management in the Holderness coast?

A

Humber Estuary- drains 1/7th of rivers in England
Sediment maintains the spit, but if this erodes from TGS, sea erosion occurs up River Humber

248
Q

Why is there flooding threat in Bangladesh?

A

Soft geology
Storm surges
Mangrove destruction

249
Q

What is the effectiveness of embankments controlling flooding in Bangladesh?

A

Raised mound to control flooding
BUT water is funnelled/constricted, so height/speed of water increases –> in overspill/floods

250
Q

What is the effectiveness of poulders controlling flooding in Bangladesh?

A

Land enclosed by embankments for farming- have 139
BUT no natural nourishment from deposition, so lnd dries out + sinks (subsidence)
–> Bangladesh further threatened by rising sea level

251
Q

What is soft engineering?

A

Attempts to work with natural processes to reduce coastal recession + flood threat

252
Q

What are 3 soft engineering strategies for coasts?

A

Beach nourishment
Cliff regrading and drainage
Dune stabilisation

253
Q

What is beach nourishment?

A

Artificially replenishing sediment on the beach to make it higher + wider

254
Q

What are 3 advantages of beach nourishment?

A

Relatively cheap + easy to maintain
Looks natural, blends with existing beach
Bigger beach increases tourism potential

255
Q

What are 2 disadvantages of beach nourishment?

A

Needs constant maintenance due to erosion + LSD
Sediment dredged offshore must be sustainable

256
Q

What is cliff regrading?

A

Reduces the angle of the cliff to stabilise it

257
Q

What is an advantage and disadvantage of cliff regrading?

A

Works on clay/loose rock where other methods don’t

Actualy causes cliff to retreat

258
Q

What is cliff drainage?

A

Removes water to prevent landslides/slumping by reducing pore water pressure

259
Q

What is an advantage and disadvantage of cliff drainage?

A

Cost effective

Can dry out and collapse (rockfall)

260
Q

What is dune stabilisation?

A

Marram grass stabilises when planted, then fenced to keep people away

261
Q

What are 3 advantages of dune stabilisation?

A

Maintains natural coastal environment
Important wildlife habitats
Relatively cheap + sustainable

262
Q

What are 2 disadvantages of dune stabilisation?

A

Time-consuming
Negative response from being kept off certain areas

263
Q

How has soft engineering been done at Kilnsea, Holderness?

A

Natural floodbanks- affordable and local run as only 90 people

Sandy Beaches Caravan Park Rollback scheme- given land choice as lost to sea, 5 new spaces for every 4 lost as 50 already lost

264
Q

How has soft engineering been done at Humber Estuary, Holderness?

A

Managaed realignment
Naturally, spit wants to move
Moveable road, although will probably go

265
Q

What is coastal squeeze, that happened at Abbots Hall Farm?

A

Hard engineering preventing landward movement, so coastal margin is squeezed
Loss/deterioration of rare + valuable natural habitats eg: short-eared owl

266
Q

Why was managed realignment chosen for Abbots Hall farm?

A

Existing flood defences on strain from rising sea levels, expensive
Natural gradient opens area for inter-tidal flood zone for habitat regeneration
Funding available eg: Essex Wildlife Trust

267
Q

What are 3 benefits of the natural + sustainable MR at Abbots Hall farm?

A

Saltmarsh + mudflat + grass habitat
Decreased coastal squeeze
Internationally important to demonstrate managed realignement

268
Q

How have stakeholders been considered in the management of Abbots Hall farm?

A

Fisherman downstream worried about sediment supply from HE
Erosion concerns
Locals engaged in decision making eg: open day

269
Q

What are 3 methods of sustainable management of the Maldives?

A

Artificial island construction
Male 3m sea wall
Education on mangroves as a defence –> afforestation of mangroves

270
Q

How does the global environment facility support economic growth in the Maldives?

A

Promotes organic farming as an alternative to overfishing via grants

271
Q

What is the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)?

A

Process bringing together all involved in development, management, and use of coast
Promotes sustainable socio-economic activity to reduce conflict, and protect the environment

272
Q

Why has there been a historical change in the way coastlines are managed?

A

Rise of higher value seaside towns for tourism
Rio Earth Summit 1992 promoted sustainability

273
Q

How are coastlines managed holistically?

A

Across political boundaries
Understanding change in one cell can impact elsewhere in cell
Planned LT
Works with natural processes, not against
Considers livelihood, local economy and biodiversity

274
Q

What are the 4 decisions in the Shoreline Management Policy (SMP)?

A

Hold the line
Advance the line
Strategic realignment
No active intervention

275
Q

What are 4 factors considered when making a complex judgement for the SMP?

A

Political/economic/social reasons
Engineering feasibility
Environmental sensitivity
Land value/use

276
Q

How is the value of agricultural land decided to make a complex judgement over an SMP?

A

Graded for condition

277
Q

What does environmental sensitivity include when making a complex judgement over an SMP?

A

Protecting historic sites
Protecting sites of specific scientific interest (SSSI)
Heritage coasts eg: Spurn Head

278
Q

What are some management strategies not suitable for (in terms of engineering feasibility)?

A

Mobile depositional features eg: spit

279
Q

What is a cost-benefit analysis?

A

Socio-economic + environmental advantages and problems of coastal defences are listed to help managers make final decisions on type of coastal defences implemented

280
Q

What is an example of a cost-benefit analysis in Happisburgh?

A

Protection = farmland saved with value almost £1 million
Erosion = grade 1 listed St Mary’s church lost

281
Q

What is the Environmental Impact Assessment?

A

Identifies short + long term impacts of building coastal defenses or changing policy
eg: sediment flow, pollution, water quality

282
Q

What is the SMP along the Holderness?

A

Mostly NAI as doesn’t cost, but some economic losses (eg: building/land)

HTL at Bridlington, Hornsea, Withernsea as highly populated, Mappleton due to A-road, Easington Gas. Here benefit of protection > cost to build

SR at Spurn point allowed to evolve with minimal cost, also SSSI

283
Q

What is the ICZM along the Odisha coastline, India?

A

Mangrove replanting
Hard engineering to control coastal erosion
Ecotourism
Cyclone shelters

284
Q

Why is the ICZM needed in Odisha, India?

A

Large mangrove forest, rich in mineral deposits, fishing industry

Under stress from:
- rapid industrialisation
- tourism
- mining
- erosion
- cyclones
- rising sea levels

285
Q

What is the management in Happisburgh?

A

Some groynes in the 50s
CBA led to NAI in immediate future, MR in medium-long term
Pathfinder Scheme to trial new ways of management eg: clifftop enhancement, caravan site removal

286
Q

Why is there conflict + sense of injustice over the management and policy decisions in Happisburgh?

A

Local residents offered compensation, but lose communities + homes
Property value decreasing (negative equity)

Pathfinder scheme can attract local businesses, thus tourism, but farmland lost for this

287
Q

Who is a winner for the management/policy decision in Happisburgh?

A

Local council saves money, less spent on hard engineering

288
Q

Where is conflict over management/policy decisions avoided?

A

Abbotts Hall as all stakeholders considered

289
Q

Why is shipbreaking a suitable job in Chittagong, Bangladesh?

A

Large tidal range, so ships stuck on mudflats
Available cheap labour

290
Q

What is the conflict in management in Chittagong?

A

Hard engineering, or soft to prioritise environment

291
Q

Why is there conflict in Chittagong?

A

Gov/shipyard owners (as v suitable) VS environmentalists/human rights activists (health issues, environmental issues eg: toxins, pollution)

Shipyard owners (money) VS fishermen (pollution = fish mortality, but fisherman lack formal job title for compensation)

Internal conflict without workers: should they risk fatalities?

292
Q

What are 2 sustainable solutions for management in Chittagong?

A

Afforestation + mangrove plantations for ecosystem
Water ponds for animal drinking water

A-level Geography (8 decks)

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