Migration Flashcards
Define: voluntary migrant
a person chooses to move in order to improve their quality of life
Define: economic migrant
someone migrating for better employment opportunities
Define: forced migrant
migrant has no (virtual) no choice but to move, often because their life is at risk
Define: refugee
a person who has left their home country because they have suffered persecution on account of: race/religion/nationality etc
Define: asylum seeker
a person who applied for applied for refugee status
Define: internal migration
rural-urban migration eg China
Most emigration is from * countries
Most immigration is to * countries
(developing/emerging/developed)
- developing
- developed
Define: diaspora
a dispersed group of people with a shared cultural background who have spread internationally from their original background
what factors affect the pattern of international migration
- war/conflict
- political factors
- economic factors
Define: sovereignty
- the authority of a state to govern
globalisation can reduce its impact eg UK leaving the EU
Define: national identity
- refers to the national feeling of being a cohesive whole, which sometimes rises above other identities (eg Scottish nationalism)
Define: selective migration
- different areas of the world accepting different numbers
- only certain groups move eg age/gender/skills/income/religion
What are common misconceptions of migration
- migration cause unemployment amongst indigenous populations
- migrants cause wages rates to fall bc they are prepared to work for less money
- immigrants take advantage of welfare system (health/education)
Why don’t migrants cause unemployment and wages to fall
bc migrants (esp. in usa) have different sets of skills to local workers so end up doing very different jobs
what are indicators of cultural assimilation
- socio-economic status of mirants compared to indigenous populations (income/education/occupation)
- social interaction between migrants and host
- perceptions of national identity/feeling of belonging
factors that affect the rate of assimilation
internal factors from WITHIN the migrant community
- length of residence in host country
- ability to speak the language of host country
- immigrants desire to maintain their cultural identity
- immigrants willingness to embrace culture of host country
factors that affect the rate of assimilation
external factors from OUTSIDE the migrant community
- government policy:
- assimilation policy
- multicultural policy
- social polarisation policy
- attitude of the receiving society
- xenophobia/fearfulness
- racism/violence
- inclusive/welcoming
Define:
- ethnicity
- race
- culture
- differentiates people based on learnt or cultural differences
- differentiates people on grounds of physical characteristics
- is the way of life of people (beliefs/values/reilgion)
define: cultural assimilation
process through which immigrant communities lose their culture distinctiveness by adjusting to the values/allegiances/lifestyles of the host society
(two way process-change in immigrants and host nation culture - produces hybrid culture)
Assimilation-
Treatment of a migrant:
Assimilation policy:
Example:
- treated like an ‘insider’ as they conform to host culture
- melting pot theory
- usa and france
Assimilation-
- melting pot theory
what is it
postive/negative perceptions
- all cultures mix and become ‘americanised’
- positive: integrated/ harmonious society enriched with best elements of different cultures
- negative: loss of negative cultures/immigrants forced to conform
Inclusion-
Treatment of a migrant:
Assimilation policy:
Example:
- treated like an ‘insider’ but allowed and encouraged to retain uniqueness
- multiculturalism
- uk and canada
Inclusion-
- multiculturalism
postive/negative perceptions
eg
positives: cultures learning from each other/enriching each other/strengthening cultural understanding/inclusive society where uniqueness is celebrated
negatives: fractured communities/conflict ridden identity politics/threat to national unity
eg: English words orientate from India eg chutney
Polarisation-
Treatment of a migrant:
Assimilation policy:
Example:
- treated like an ‘outsider’ - there’s little social integration with host society
- social polarisation
- middle east to uae/kahtar
Polarisation-
social polarisation
- what is it
- postive/negative perceptions
- immigrants permitted to work but not “one of us” and thy are sponsored by employee “the Kafala system”
positives: accepting society bc don’t feel culturally threatened/ economic benefits from cheap migrant labour
negatives: human rights violation? treated like ‘slave’, no citizenship rights, local unemployment is high as prefer cheap migrants
types of migration:
- migration
- international (external) migration
- national (internal) migration
- the (semi)permanent movement from one area to another (<12 months)
- migration between countries
- migration within a country
Define:
- immigration
- emigration
- in-migration
- out-migration
- into a diff country
- out of a diff county
eg I move to Italy - I am an immigrant of Italy, and an emmigrant of UK
- into place w/in a county
- out of place w/in a country
eg I move to Leeds - I am an in-migrant of Leeds and an out-migrant of Tenbury
how has globalisation IMPACTED migration
(IMF) the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through increasing amount of cross-border transitions in:
… goods and services/freer interactional capital flows/more rapid+widespread diffusion of technology
how has economic systems impacted migration
the means by which countries/governments distribute resources and trade goods/services
- used to control: labour/capital/entrepreneurs/physical+information resources
how has globalisation ENCOURAGED migration
- increase transport links (cheap/big flights)nam
- global shift (rural-urban)
- development in technology (mobile phones/online making/easy contact)
name two processes which drove urbanisation
- dual-urban migration
- high rates of natural increase in urban areas
Case Study: emerging country: rural-urban migration
China
- world biggest economy
- worlds largest population
- worlds third largest (land area) country
Why do people migrate
motives;
- economic
- family
- education
- lifestyle
- environment
- conflict/war
Neoclassical economic theories:
- push factors (encourage migrants to leave)
- lack of jobs/servies crime - poor education - poverty - political repression
Neoclassical economic theories:
- pull factors (encourage migrants to move to a place)
- better income/job
- political freedom
- educational opportunities
Lee’s model:
Origin_^^^_^_Destination
What do the arrows indicate?
- intervening obstacles
- things people need to over come to love
- if they can, then they migrate
eg family in origin
Modernisation School Theory:
Stage 1: pre-modern traditional society Stage 2: early transitional society Stage 3: late transitional society Stage 4: advanced society Stage 5: future?
Stage 1: very limited migration, only local interval migration eg marriage
Stage 2: some inter-urban migration/mass immigration of low skilled workers from less developed countries
Stage 3: mass rural-urban migration and immigration to attractive foreign destination for settlements
Stage 4: some inter-urban migration/immigration of low skilled labour from less developed countries, but with strict control over immigration
Stage 5: slackening of both rural-urban migration and emigration
Dependancy school - dual labour market theory
- primary labour market - ?
- secondary labour market - ?
- secure/high skilled+waged jobs
- mainly filled by indigenous workers
- insecure, low skill/wage and unpleasant jobs eg factory worker
- this reinforces the undesirability of these jobs for the local labour force
why do forgein workers accept poor conditions/low pay
- people that live here dont want to do those jobs, but they happy too
- better pay then back home
how does social media encourage migration
- technology allowed communications everywhere
- post pictures- attractive
- easy access to jobs/homes
what do migration networks provide potential migrants?
Information about:
- how to overcome “intervening obstacles”
- a potential destination
Contacts in the potential destinations who may be able to help with:
- finding accommodation
- finding jobs
- financial assistance
Case Study: Developed country: rural-urban migration
Spain
What is the core-periphery system
- the uneven spatial distribution of national population and wealth between two or more regions of a country, resulting in flows of migrants trade and investment
Egs: US and Canada
What is Backwash
- flows of people, investment and resources directed from peripheral to core regions
- this process is responsible for the polarisation of regional prosperity between regions within the same country
What is the Schegan Agreement
- the removal of national border controls within the EU
(in 1995) - enables easier movement of people/goods: no passport showing at borders
- UK did not sign
- fears of terrorism/uncontrolled refugee movements
Case study: non-immigration policy
Japan
What is a nation state
a political entity that has sovereignty over its territory (clear boundaries), authority to govern without outside interference and recogntion by other countries
eg self governing cities, kingdoms and empires
Factors that affect a nation state
history
demography
location
physical geography
What is a nation
ethic group + political dimension
Define: cultural dimension
- group of people who share a common cultural heritage (often in form of common language, religion, history and traditions. often a belief in a common descent)
Define: political dimension
- group of people who regard themselves as a “natural” political community with a shared desire to establish or maintain sovereignty
Define: phycological dimension
- group with shared loyalty, affection (national pride) and sense of belonging in the form of patriotism
Name two countries that are ethnically diverse
UK / USA
Name two countries that are ethnically homogenous
Japan / China
What does the Japanese government believe in? Is this true?
“one race, one civilisation, one language and one culture” - Japan PM 2012
BUT: they don’t collect data on those that are ethnically diverse - so claim all citizens are Japanese when they’re not
Why is Japan relatively culturally homogenous
- Japanese islands geographically isolated
- strict immigrant controls (28 out of 10,000 approved)
- long periods of self imposed isolation, then US Navy forced Japan to open itself to trade
Why is China relatively culturally homogenous
- long history of isolation
- from 1321 “sea ban” on foreign ships
- ban lasted til 1842 as US Navy forced it to open to trade
- had a “closed door policy” from 1949 - 1976, now open door but still not as diverse at US
Is China getting more diverse
- since having open door policy improved
- 2012 government increased restriction of immigration due to public pressure
- immigration was common bc low wages
what affects the feeling of otherness
- physical appearance (race/clothing)
- belief systems/practices
what is part of the western belief system
- secularism: religion should be private and not intrusive
- moral relativism: no absolute moral values
- Christianity is an orthodoxy: religion requires correct belief
what is part of the islamic belief system
- theocracy: religious authority should prevail over political
- fundamentalism: certain principles are recognised as essential
- Islam is an orthopraxy: religion requires correct behaviour
what are 4 variations in ability of people to migrate across national boundaries
- skill
- income
- unequal border controls
- links to international elite
unequal controls on international migration: tier 1
- relates to entrepreneurs, investors and highly skilled workers
(highest amount of stay)
unequal controls on international migration: tier 2
- relates to migration with a job offer with a UK based employer
unequal controls on international migration: tier 3
- desired for low-skilled workers filling specific temporary labour shortages
- currently suspended due to numbers of Eastern Europeans able to do these jobs
unequal controls on international migration: tier 4
- relates to foreign students studying in UK based higher education
- limited to duration of course of study
unequal controls on international migration: tier 5
- relates to temporary workers and youth mobility schemes eg gap year students and is normally 6months/1year
(shortest amount of stay)
why is UK relatively ethnically diverse
- British empire
- EU nation: expanded in 2004 when 8 europeans countries joined and freedom of movement is granted to EU citizens
The origin with USA’s borders: stage 1
1783-1803: War os Secession: Creation of a new sovereign state
- 13 colonies won independence from Britain
- when territory had enough inhabitants it became a State with own governor, shows lots of in-migrants
The origin with USA’s borders: stage 2
1803-1844: The Louisiana
* need to get off TP*
The origin with USA’s borders: stage 3
1844-1861: War with Mexicans and a Treaty with the British Empire
The origin with USA’s borders: stage 4
need to get of TP
The origin with USA’s borders: stage 5
1861-1865: Civil War: Threat of separation
-The Confederate States of America formed by 7 states, tried to form break away country but they were defeated in civil war
The origin with USA’s borders: stage 6
1867-1998: Alaska and Hawaii
- US bought Alaska from Russia in 1867, R feared BE might seize the territory
- Hawaii removed queen of Hawaii in 1893
- Hawaii became 50th member of US after vote in 1898
what are the three natural boundaries which have been used to mark the borders of the USA
- Rocky Mountains
- Rio Grande
- Great Lakes
what US border ignores natural features and just striating line on map
between usa and Canada
- agreed by BE in 1818
give example how US borders have come about due to secession
- creation of USA in 1783 when the 13 OG states broke away from BE
give example how US borders have come about due to cession
- BE and USA agreed on 49th parallel state as border between US and Canada
- Spain gives up Florida
give example how US borders have come about due to annexation
- Texas annexed by USA
- Hawaii
define:
- annexation
- cession
- secession
- one state takes control of another without permission
- one sovereign state gives up some territory to another, sometimes as peace treaty
- when a separatist group declares independence and. a territory breaks away from a sovereign state, often after civil war/referendum
describe the distribution of Syrian refugees
- Germany received the most Syrian refugees out of the European countries bc do not have limit (germans are against this)
- UK and Spain accepted v little due to tight immigration policies. worries of terrorism/stealing jobs
- majority went to neighbouring countries eg Turkey/Lebanon
what is the Kafala system
- relationship binding employee to the employer
- criticised as ‘slave like’
- for too much power in hands of employer scan dictate working conditions/recruitment process
the causes of migration: the neoclassical economic theory
- the most significant push/pull factors are wage differences, which cause migration flows from low-wage to high-wage areas
the causes of migration: dual labour market theory
- pull factors in developed countries bring migrant workers to fill the lowest-skilled jobs because the home population does not wish to do this work
the causes of migration: the new economics of labour migration
- migration flows and patterns cannot be explained solely at the level of individual worker and the push and pull facts that cause migration
- more complex eg household in source country may improve their living conditions by using remittances sent by family members working abroad
the causes of migration: relative deprivation theory
- awareness of income differences between neighbours in a source community is an important factor in migration
- successful migrant can afford better schooling for their children and better homes for their families
- so may serves as examples for others and encourage them to move
the causes of migration: the worlds systems theory
- trade between countries may cause economic decline in some
- encouraging people to move to a more successful country
- even after decolonisation, former colonies may remain economically dependant on the former colonial superpower, which may encourage migration along trading routes
- however free trade may encourage people to stay in their home country if they can earn higher wages from new production processes
the world economy: - core - semi-periphery - periphery give examples
- Canada/USA/Australia/New Zealand/Europe(most)
- Russia/Brazil/South Africa/China/India
- Africa/Peru/Middle East/Indonesia
Case study: National borders
- the colonial heritage of Iraq’s borders
* need to complete in case study deck*, page 269
why are there contested borders
- eg Western Sahara, Kashmir and the seabed under the Artic Ocean
- due to desire of one state to absorb the territory of another
- or unite culturally or ethically similar population
- or gain access to valuable resources
- but threat to territory likely to lead to instability or conflict
Case study: conflict of territory
Conflict in Ukraine
need to complete in case study deck, page 271
define: nationalism
- the shared feeling for a signifiant geographic area
- people belief their nation are more important than those belonging to other nations
Case study: nationalism
The British Empire and nationalism
need to complete in case study deck, page 272
nationalism:
neo-colonial:
- belief held by people belonging to a particular nation that their own interests are much more important than those in other nations
- indirect actions by which developed countries exercise a degree of control over the development of their former colonies done by: eg conditions attached to loans/aid, cultural influence or military of economic support
British Empire:
- founded on?
- after interdependence?
- grouping created?
- till this day?
- founded on exploration/communications technology
- after interdependence, many ex-British colonies voluntarily chose to remain in the common wealth
- this grouping created unity
- till this day countries still have the union jack in their flag
Scramble for Africa
- when
- who
- what
- in addition
- late 19th century
- as Britain, France and Portugal
- sought to divide domains amongst themselves
- then, Italy, Germany and Belgium also sought African colonies
- African regions were divided by “ruler-drawn” borders, splitting communities and ethnic groups, into new colonies governed by differing powers with their own imposed languages, forms of administration and imperial agendas
Ethnic conflict and contested borders in central Africa: what did European powers do
- European powers began to colonise Africa in the 1700s, they aimed to create a system of raw material extraction for export and made little productive investment in African countries.
causes of decolonisation
- two world wars left Britain virtually bankrupt and unable to finance the administration of a large empire
- Atlantic charger, signed by Roosevelt and Churchill during ww2, one of the key provisions introduced by the US wars to give autonomy to colonies, after the war, the colonies and US pushed Britain to act on the terms of agreement
- After WW2, national self-determination ability to self-govern, became an objective for some countries and international organisations like the UN and the US
(Post-colonial) case study
Democratic Republic of Congo
post-colonial migration: what created strong push factors for migration
the conflicts, poor governance and economic struggles associated with decolonisation created strong push factors for migration from newly independent states to the farmer imperial powers
Africain Independence Timetable
1960: “The year of Africa” 17 countries gained independence
post-colonial migration: what created strong pull factors for migration
The economic boom is many developed countries in the 1960s introduced strong pull factors
The same migrants flows are still evident today and have been important in changing the ethnic composition and cultural hegemony of former colonies powers or consequently their identity
(immigration and the changing face of the UK) case study
Windrush Empire
reverse migration UK and India
- push and pull factors
push: feel like don’t belong in UK
pull: more job opportunities, traditions/culture (connection) , western influences in India, life time VISA, high population
define: tax haven
- country/jurisdiction that have v. low or no tax regime
define: corporation tax
- tax on company profits, 20% in UK
define: tax avoidance
- legal method of reducing tax paid
how to TNCs use ‘transfer pricing’ to avoid TAX
- most TNCs consist of a parent company, which owns and controls a group of subsidiary companies of a TNC
define: transfer price
- price which subsidiary companies of a TNC transact with each other or w/ the parent company
- not illegal but it can be abused by transfer mis-pricing
example of tax haven (corporate tax)
- 10% in Switzerland and 20% in UK
- in 2015, Petrochemical company Ineos moved HQ’s UK->Switzerland
- corporate migration saved £0.5 billion over 5 years
why do most brands not relocate (tax havens)
- due to brand authenticity, corporate responsibility, public perception, security and current ability to declare profits in low- tax states
what to brands do instead of relocating (tax havens)
- use transfer pricing to reduce tax burden by routing profits to a subsidiary company in a low tax state
- wealthy expatriates limit personal tax by moving to a tax haven
Arguments for tax havens
- keep governments honest
- get away with lower tax
Arguments against tax havens
- citizens have to pay but TNCs don’t
global inequalities
- a threat to world economy?
- they are recognised as a major threat to the sustainability of the global economic system
- the World Economic Form is forcing on the problem of increasing income inequality w/ in developed and emerging countries, where by small elites now enjoy unprecedented rewards while many are squeezed out of the middle, class category into poverty
social consequences of global inequality
- unequal access to education
- chronic diseases, links w/ diet
- increase risk of political and social strife
- can’t get onto property ladder
inequality appears to be an inevitable outcome of capitalists activity, capitalism has three key principles…?
- land resources and capital are privately owned
- majority of people work for a wage
- market mediate between producers and consumers
define: economic sanctions
- restriction of trade or cultural exchange with a particular country in the hope it will bring about change in that government domestic or foreign policy
eg banning trade
define: military sanctions
- UN forces act to intrude its military forces into the course of an existing controversy
define: unilateral action
- occurs where one (or more) countries acts against another with out the formal approval of the UN
examples of sanctions
- arms embargoes
- trade embargoes
- restriction on loans
- freezing assets
- travel restriction
- banning weapons/military supplies
- banning specific import items to the country involved (eg modern technology)
- for development projects
- eg bank accounts, or specific people/companies
- for specific people eg politicians or business people
positives of trade blocs
- lower prices of commodities
- stimulate trade between member countries
- help economic growth
negatives of trade blocs
- divert the world from multilateral negotiations and lead to the development of rival trading blocs
- possible exploitation of developing countries by industrialised countries
- environmental concerns as production of goods overseas is not regulated consistently
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)
- aims
- what does it do
- example
- aims to assess how changes in ecosystems have affected human wellbeing and how to conserve and use them sustainably
- it reports on conditions/trend in the worlds ecosystems and the benefits they provide
- eg the MEA is studying the Great Barrier Reef
how is nationalism reinforced
- education (curriculum in history/citizenship)
- sport and cultural (Olympics/World Cup)
- political parties (policy to reinforce “British Values”
name the British values in education
what’s promoted in schools
- democracy
- rule of law
- individual liberty
how are perceptions of “Britishness” changing
- British identity reflects the increasing diversity of our society
- in England/Wales, the elderly least likely to pick “British” as identity, possibly bc no longer see Britain as British, due to globalisation, immigration, new languages/culture
- in Wales: young people pick “welsh” as identity maybe bc compulsory learning welsh in schools
global citizenship vs. national identity
- name some examples of global citizenship
- facebook reaches 2 billions monthly users
- hyper-globalisation: significance of individual state, will diminish in a shrinking and borderless world
global citizenship vs. national identity
- name some examples of national identity
- barriers to globalisation are rising eg BREXIT
- supporting England in World Cup
