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migration Flashcards

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1
Q

number of global migrants in 2020 and the percentage of the worlds population which this made up

A

280.6 million global migrants in 2020
4% of worlds 7.8b

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2
Q

how many have become international migrants in past decade?
has number increased since 1960?

A

60 million people in last 10 years
historical high in 2020, 4 times that of 1960

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3
Q

top international migrant-receiving countries and why

A

> 52% reside in N America and Europe
N Africa and W Asia account for 18%
USA= top dest. ; accounts for 5% of global pop. but has attracted 18% of all migrants
ACs due to greater economic and social stability OR oil-producing countries in Gulf, which attract many Asian migrants who come through temp. work programs

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4
Q

countries/regions receiving least international migrants

A

Oceania receive 3%
receive 0% when Australia and NZ are excluded

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5
Q

what percentage of the populations of Gulf nations do migrants make up?

A

highest
UAE 88%
Qatar 77%

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6
Q

which regions have the largest numbers of emigrants

A

Europe and N America
send 24% of int. migrant population

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7
Q

how many migrant workers were there in 2019
what % of the global workforce did they make up?

A

169 million
5% of global workforce
ACCORDING TO INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION

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8
Q

percentage of migrants which are workers

A

70% of migrants over 15y/o

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9
Q

women represent what percentage of migrant workers

A

70 million
42%

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10
Q

recorded remittances 2019
how much of this was to LIDCs/EDCs
drop due to COVID?

A

record high
USD 719 billion
USD 548 billion to LIDCs/EDCs
fell to USD 702 billion in 2020

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11
Q

top 5 remittance-receiving countries in 2020
received how much collectively

A

india
china
mexico
philippines
egypt
USD 250b: 36% of all remittances

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12
Q

countries which rely on remittances the most?

A

Tonga (38% of GDP)
Somalia (35% of GDP)
Lebanon (33% of GDP)
South Sudan (29% of GDP)
Kyrgyz Republic (29% of GDP)

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13
Q

number of international students in 2000 and 2019

A

2000: 2 million
2019: 6.1 million

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14
Q

top 5 destinations for international students
% of students in 2019 (combined and USA)

A

USA
australia
uk
germany
russian federation
hosted 43% of global students in 2019
USA hosts 16% of international students

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15
Q

top 5 sending countries of international students in 2019

A

china
india
vietnam
germany
france

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16
Q

number of humanitarian migrants in 2022 and 2000
made up of….

A

> 100 million in early 2022 (represent 1% of global population)
4 times the 20.7 million in 2000
ESTIMATES BY UNHCR
2022 humanitarian migrants include 26.6m refugees, 4.4m asylum seekers, 50.9m IDPs

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17
Q

large flows of humanitarian migrants come from which countries?

A

Syria
Venezuela
Afghanistan
South Sudan
Myanmar

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18
Q

what percentage of refugees live in neighbouring countries?

A

72%

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19
Q

what percentage of international migrants are female
why do they migrate?

A

48% in 2020
(134.9m)
majority move for work, family, education
some for man-made/natural disaster

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20
Q

population change definition

A

the balance of the number being born (BR) and the number dying (DR); the number moving in (immigration) and the number moving out (emigration)

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21
Q

net migration definition

A

difference between the number of people moving permanently into an area and out of that area

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22
Q

immigration definition

A

in-migration of people into a country, which involved a permanent change of residence

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23
Q

emigration definition

A

out-migration of people from a country, which involves a permanent change of residence

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24
Q

refugee definition

A

a person who has moved outside the country of their nationality or usual domicile because of genuine fear of persecution or death

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25
Q

asylum seeker definition

A

a person who seeks entry to another country by claiming to be a refugee

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26
Q

economic migrant definition

A

a person who moves from another country, region or place, involving a permanent or semi-permanent change of residence, to improve their standards of living or job opportunities

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27
Q

inter-regional migrant flows definition

A

migration of large numbers of people between different regions of the world e..g Europe to North America

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28
Q

intra-regional migrant flows definition

A

migration of large numbers of people within a region of the world, e.g. Europe

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29
Q

illegal migration definition

A

migration with no government permission, no documentation which usually limits right to work

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30
Q

sending countries/country of origin definition

A

country from which migrants leave

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31
Q

receiving countries/country of destination definition

A

countries into which migrants arrive

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32
Q

push factors definition

A

negative attributes of a migrant’s place of origin which force a migrant to leave

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33
Q

pull factors definition

A

positive attributes of a place or destination which attract migrants

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34
Q

migrant remittances definition

A

money transferred from one country to another, sent home by migrants to their family, friends and community

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35
Q

diasporas definition

A

the spread of ethnic or national group from their homeland e.g. Jews from Israel, Kurd from Kurdistan

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36
Q

difference between asylum seekers and economic migrants ad their impacts

A

asylum seekers= fleeing country due to fear of persecution/death. tend to be perceived more negatively
economic migrants= move to improve QoL or job prospects. more positive impacts (especially economically). usually better educated, so work in more high-paying jobs and provide keen and willing workforce
BOTH bring diversity and enhance culture so have social impacts. can also put pressure of services.

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37
Q

what is lee’s model and what does it apply to?

A

economic migrants

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38
Q

potential barriers to inter-regional migration?

A

SOME ARE PERMANENT
SOME ARE TEMPORARY/ST AND MAY ONLY BE PRESENT FOR A SHORT WHILE
SIGNIFICANCE DECREASES E.G. BY TECHNOLOGY, WHICH CAN OVERCOME PHYSICAL BARRIERS
physical factors e.g. mountains, seas, rivers, distance
misinformation
political differences
bureaucracy
illiteracy and different language
cost of travel
military services
national/government policy
family pressures
regional and ethnic differences
borders
immediate job opportunities

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39
Q

evidence that many migrants are intra-regional

A

flow of 4 million migrants within sub-saharan africa
flow of 1 million migrants within south asia
flow of 1.5 million migrants within SE Asia

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40
Q

possible explanation for why many migrants are intra-regional?

A

econ. migrants may find it easier and cheaper to migrate to neighbouring countries
refugees/asylum seekers are just looking to flee/get out of country of origin so neighbouring countries are easier to get to quickly
less language barriers within region/common language spoken
people more likely to move within stateless nations due to shared culture/ region and they feel more welcome
short-term, large scale migration in search of safety from conflict

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41
Q

evidence that inter-regional migration is often short distance to neighbouring regions

A

flow of 5 million migrants from south asia to Western Asia
flow of 3 million migrants form central america to north america

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42
Q

possible explanation for why inter-regional migration is often short distance to neighbouring regions

A

avoid crossing large physical barriers e.g. oceans
ease and reduced cost
HUBS of migration: people tend to migrate to nearest Econ. developed state (globalisation means this is not limited to Europe)
freedom of movement e.g. within EU
econ. migrants may find it easier and cheaper to migrate to neighbouring countries
refugees/asylum seekers are just looking to flee/get out of country of origin so neighbouring countries are easier to get to quickly
less language barriers within region/common language spoken
people more likely to move within stateless nations due to shared culture/ region and they feel more welcome
short-term, large scale migration in search of safety from conflict

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43
Q

evidence that the most sig. destination for international migrants is europe

A

around 10 million immigrating to europe

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44
Q

possible explanation for why the most significant destination for international migrants is europe

A

job opportunities so there are economic migrants (send remittances)
borders lots of other regions by and
historical links of colonisation: have grown up with perception of European countries being wealthy, developed and dominant
cultural and social opportunities

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45
Q

most active areas in the world where there are clusters of migration

A

USA has largest net immigration: lots from Central America, Caribbean, Mexico due to socioeconomic opportunities
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, India has large amounts of emigration to Middle East as workers for construction
intra-regional flows within europe: esp. from south an east to west and north, due to freedom of movement within the EU
intra-regional flows within africa. regional hub of South Africa in africa is more developed than its neighbours
large numbers of people leaving syria: largest net emigration in 2010-15 due to conflict. refugees migrate to neighbouring countries (intra-regional) e.g. turkey, Iraq
quite a lot of emigration from South Asia; people tend to migrate to nearest econ. developed countries
middle-east is very active due to conflict in area and job opportunities in construction

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46
Q

quiet areas in world with few migrants coming or going

A

isolated countries e.g. New Zealand, Canada have less migration due to physical geography
very little migration to/from/within South America: due to rainforest and mountain ranges

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47
Q

strengths and weaknesses of this data presentation

A

STRENGTHS
easy to identify areas of lots of migration (e.g. Middle East)
spatial variation= v easy to identify
WEAKNESSES
yellow dots are difficult to read e.g. overlap
not quantifiable/ precise ( of both no. of migrants and net immigration/emigration)
overlapping circles so it is tricky to identify which country it is

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48
Q

value of migrant remittances definition

A

(important flow of money)
a statistical measure of international migration which is liked to development
private funds sent by migrants usually to the non-migrant members of their family

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49
Q

human development index definition

A

a composite index for development incorporating social and economic indices for life expectancy, education and GDP per capita
score= between 1 and 0
1=most developed
0 =least developed

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50
Q

benefits and drawbacks of a country having large levels of migrant remittances

A

+ are of considerable importance in development process, especially in LIDCs/EDCs (where they represent a high proportion of GDP) and are of greater significance to their economy and development
+ source of income for those in origin country
+families receiving money invest it and kickstart local PME
- industry is not being developed
-emigrants form origin country are usually more educated (BRAIN DRAIN) so workforce is limited bc educated pop is lost
-over-reliance can develop so they are dependent on another country and their policies (bilateral flows are particularly vulnerable)

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51
Q

what is the blue banana?
pop. density?
how does it link to intra-regional migration?

A

discontinuous corridor of urbanisation in western europe
pattern links to population density
blue banana has a population of 111 million
attractive to migrants (highest pop. dens it europe)
PME increases urbanisation and increases socio-economic development
link between high socioeconomic dev and migrant populations

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52
Q

what does a spearman’s rank test show and what is it used for?

A

shows correlation between 2 continuous data sets
tells you how strong a correlation is and whether it is statistically significant or not
helps us answer investigative questions by telling us whether relationships could have occurred by chance or whether there is a significant correlation

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53
Q

flows of people in migration

A

MIGRANTS
LEAD TO ALL OTHER FLOWS

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54
Q

flows of people: MIGRANTS

A

280.6m in 2020: make up 4% of world pop
26.6m refugees & 50.9m IDPs & 4.4m asylum seekers (over 100m in early 2022; 1% of global pop)
169m economic migrants (international migrant workers in 2019)
international students (16% to USA, 6.1m in 2019, e.g. Nepal, no. of outbound students increased so birth rate decreased due to young pop leaving)
return migrants
female migrants (48% of migrants)
child migrants (35.5m of 280.6m= highest ever recorded, 2020)

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55
Q

flows of people: LEAD TO ALL OTHER FLOWS

A

bring ideas, culture
cause flows of money

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56
Q

flows of ideas?

A

GLOBALISATION
BRING CULTURE TO HOST COUNTRY
SOCIAL REMITTANCES
EDUCATION

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57
Q

flows of ideas: GLOBALISATION

A

western companies/TNCs spreading to LIDCs

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58
Q

flows of ideas: BRING CULTURE TO HOST COUNTRY

A

e.g. cuisine and food, festivals (st Pauls Caribbean carnival Bristol, notting hill carnival), customs
multiculturalism created; a valuable social benefit of migration

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59
Q

flows of ideas: EDUCATION

A

international students (e..g Nepali students in the US have increased from 9662 in 2015/16 to 11607 in 2016/17)
can come back to work in source country and boost the economy

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60
Q

flows of ideas: SOCIAL REMITTANCES

A

take host country’s perspective, knowledge, political/cultural norms back to source country (e.g. gender equality, education, family size)
can change source country’s perceptions

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61
Q

flows of money examples

A

remittances sent home to source country

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62
Q

flow of money: REMITTANCES

A

larger tan FDI official dev. assistance received by LIDCs and EDCs
made easier by more efficient and secure use of technology
record high of £719bn in 2019
Tonga= most dependent on remittances as it makes up 38% of their GDP

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63
Q

flows of technology examples

A

BORDER CONTROL & ABILITY TO CONTROL NUMBERS OF MIGRANTS
SENDING OF REMITTANCES MADE MORE EFFICIENT AND EASY BY TECH
COMMUNICAITION
NGOS USE TECH TO ASSESS CRISES
CRISIS MAPPING

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64
Q

flows of technology: CRISIS MAPPING

A

ability to map and manage migrant routes
e.g. satellite imagery, cartography, field reports, use of conventional media reports, crowd-sources data from texts, emails, tweets
NGOs can use to put response where it is most needed

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65
Q

flows of technology: EASING OF REMITTANCE-SENDING

A

mobile money transfers made more reliable by cash transfer programming and increased use of smartphones

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66
Q

opportunities and challenges of migration?

A

OPPS: developmental growth, stability, development
CHALLENGES: conflict, injustice, inequality

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67
Q

opportunities of developmental growth in source country
WHAT FLOW

A

migrant remittances stimulate multiplier effect in SC e.g. Opole region in Poland gets 25% of its spending from remittances (MONEY)
technology, through bank transfers and the sue of smartphones makes transfer of remittances more secure (TECH)

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68
Q

opportunities of developmental growth in host country
WHAT FLOW

A

migrants fill gaps in labour markets/ reduce skill shortages e.g. farmers in Norfolk rely on seasonal migrant labour (PEOPLE)
migrants are consumers in HC so create new market, boost spending and may create new specialist businesses e.g. Polish shops (PEOPLE)
GDP and tax base of HC boosted by immigration e.g. contribute £25bn in UK (MONEY)
often do work that local population won’t, so support businesses e.g. service industry in Southern California (PEOPLE)

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69
Q

opportunities of stability in source country
WHAT FLOW

A

international migration can limit internal rural-urban migration and the pressure this puts on rapidly growing urban areas e.g Indians to Dubai instead of Delhi (PEOPLE)
global migration leads to diffusion of ideas e.g. family size, education, gender equality and democracy- these benefits are called social remittances (IDEAS)

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70
Q

opportunities of stability in host country
WHAT FLOW

A

diasporas create events, links and networks which stimulate the local economy, generate the PME and help promote multi-culturalism e.g. in Leicester (IDEAS)
technology (via phones and big data) allows us to follow and map migrations more effectively so personnel can be put in place where needed (TECH)
flows of info via social media and smartphones mean asylum seekers find maps of bets routes & safe areas to stay (IDEAS VIA TECH)

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71
Q

opportunities of development in source country
WHAT FLOW

A

moving abroad for higher education then returning to work in home country transfers skills and technology, aiding development (TECH)
returning migrants bring back new skills and knowledge. they may start own businesses which aid development of home country (IDEAS)
remittances sent home by migrants contribute up to 30% of GDP (Tonga) (MONEY)

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72
Q

opportunities of development in host country
WHAT FLOW

A

UN ‘migration and development’ projects provide bottom-up approaches to development (IDEAS)

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73
Q

challenges of conflict in source country
WHAT FLOW

A

conflicts arose along US-Mexican border as Mexicans try to cross illegally. patrols and surveillance. (PEOPLE)

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74
Q

challenges of conflict in host country
WHAT FLOW

A

social conflict can occur in areas where large numbers of migrants reside and change the culture of the area e.g. 1 in 10 people in New England ward, Peterborough are E European migrants (concentrated) (PEOPLE)
conflicts over new border controls to restrict migrant movement. Hungary and Bulgaria have erected expensive wire fences along borders (PEOPLE)
migrants bring ideas and values with them which may contradict those of the local culture into which they move e.g. British moving to S Spain and insisting on maintaining British culture (PEOPLE & IDEAS)

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75
Q

challenges of injustice between countries
WHAT FLOW

A

people smuggling lead to violations of human rights. in the Med, boats are not safe, staff abandon boats, they may capsize
(PEOPLE)

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76
Q

challenges of injustice in source country
WHAT FLOW

A

poor access to tech limits knowledge of situations on the ground and the ability of relied organisations to respond to refugee needs (TECH)

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77
Q

challenges of injustice in host country
WHAT FLOW

A

poor access to tech limits knowledge of situations on the ground and the ability of relied organisations to respond to refugee needs (TECH)
treatment of migrants in detention centres is often criticised. suicides common in such centres (PEOPLE)
Australia doesn’t allow boats w/ asylum seekers to land (restricting access to anyone trying to arrive in this way) (PEOPLE)
illegal migrants are often exploited by unscrupulous employers as they have no rights so get low pay and poor working conditions e.g. Mexicans in US (PEOPLE)
some refugee camps e.g. Dadaab in N Kenya is 25y/o. few prospects of conflicts ever being solved so injustices and inequalities will remain (PEOPLE)

78
Q

challenges of inequality in source country
WHAT FLOW

A

Poland loses it younger generation as most of migrants are 18-30y/o so there are fewer doctors, plumbers and construction workers and economic growth is limited (PEOPLE)
BRAIN DRAIN of highly qualified people. Malawi has lost many media personnel to work overseas so their own healthcare suffers: there is 1 doctor per 40,000 people (PEOPLE)
families of migrants benefit from increased income due to remittances but others don’t. in Bulgaria, families of EU migrants have built smart new houses with their remittances (MONEY)

79
Q

most significant impacts in host country?

A

+gaps filled in labour markets
+migrants are consumers so increase spending
+econ. migrants stimulate PME and increase econ. growth
+multiculturalism
-conflicts due to stress on services and changes to culture
-poor treatment of migrants, who are often exploited because they have no rights, so receive less pay and have lower quality of life

80
Q

does source country or host country win migration game?

A

fairly evenly balanced in terms of opportunities/challenges
BUT positive feedback loop caused by migration boosts GDP and development of HC whilst decreasing the GDP and developmental growth of SC
DESTINATION is winner
DESTINATION benefits overall from migration otherwise they would restrict it

81
Q

have the impacts of migration changed over time?

A

YES:
globalisation means there are different flows of migrants e.g. more intra regional due to socioeconomic dev. of geographically close countries outside of Europe and N America. increased mobility and ease of travel
impacts of technology= easier to map migrations so personnel and aid is in correct locations (and flows of info through social media) to increase safety
increased security during transfers of remittances

82
Q

what is the feedback loop of migration?

A

clever, most econ. active people move to countries with higher GDP -> BRAIN DRAIN
source country’s GDP decreases bc. clever, econ. active leave to HC
PME in HC bc more migration to a country with a higher GDP. their GDP increases bc increased brain (more people coming for increased QoL and better job prospects)
Acs benefitting from migration otherwise they would restrict it

83
Q

is the flow of remittances a positive or negative feedback loop?

A

NEGATIVE
BUT does not equal out the overall positive feedback loop caused by migration so is unbalanced

84
Q

what is the Brandt line?

A

The concept of a gap between the Global North and the Global South in terms of development and wealth. Classifying countries. In the 1980s, the Brandt Line was developed as a way of showing the how the world was geographically split into relatively richer and poorer nations.

85
Q

patterns of traditional migration

A

from ‘poorer, southern countries’ to ‘richer, northern countries’
younger, more motivated men migrated to work

86
Q

6 ways in which global migration has become more complex?

A

econ. globalisation leading to emergence of new source areas and host destinations
high conc. of young workers and female migrants
flows in south-south corridors are now equal in magnitude to those in south-north corridors
conflict and persecution have increased numbers of refugees
changes in national immigration and emigration policies
development of distinct corridors of bilateral flows

87
Q

econ. globalisation leading to emergence of new source areas and host destinations: explain

A

as globalisation occurs, countries become more interlinked with flows of people and money.
as more countries develop, they attract flows of migrants to them
as many ACs tighten migration policies, migrants look for new countries to move to
an increasing number of countries and their economies have become more independent, linked to globalisation,
the increased complexity of global migration can be linked to this increase in the globalisation process
positive feedback loop: econ. growth causes immigration of young, motivated people, leading to further econ. growth so greater immigration e.t.c.

88
Q

econ. globalisation leading to emergence of new source areas and host destinations: how have flows of migration changed due to this?

A

major bilateral corridors and traditional migration partnerships have remained strong, but in addition new places of origin and new destinations for migrants have emerged as the effects of globalisation have spread
migration will usually be intra-regional bc this is easier, less dangerous and cheaper. as LIDCs develop unevenly, there will be natural migration into the countries that are developing faster BUT they don’t need to be developed, just more developed than the countries around them. this sets off a positive feedback loop

89
Q

econ. globalisation leading to emergence of new source areas and host destinations: new inter-regional flows due to this

A

migration of highly-skilled workers from china, India and Brazil (BRAIN DRAIN) to the USA (pos. feedback loop and dev.)- including graduates, esp. in science, maths and tech, and those in professional and business services, attracted by high salaries and the QoL
migration of workers from India, Bangladesh and Pakistan (less pressure on urban areas) to oil-producing Gulf states and Saudi Arabia; attracted by increased demand for labour, relatively high wages, ease of returning formal remittances (dev. of SC) , accommodation, and improved transport and communication

90
Q

econ. globalisation leading to emergence of new source areas and host destinations: new intra-regional flows due to this

A

rapid increase of international migrant stock (6.5m in 2015) among ASEAN member states; the fast growing economies of Singapore and Thailand= main destinations (pos. feedback loop & inequalities) while Cambodia, Lao PDR= main sources. most migrants are low-skilled and many are undocumented, seeking employment and higher wages via cyclical migration to countries of higher socioeconomic dev. (increased QoL and econ. opps)
increased migration streams in S America, esp, to ‘Southern Cone’. main drivers= wage and labour opportunity disparities (pos. feedback loop & inequalities). regional integration (MERCOSUR)= eased immigration through free movement of labour (more migrants)
return migration= high proportion of migrant flows within EU: Romania(93% of its total migration) and Lithuania (88%). this includes young workers having achieved their pre-planned econ. goals after 2 or 3 years; often taking low-skilled jobs abroad before returning to more prestigious positions in home country

91
Q

significance of econ. globalisation leading to emergence of new source areas and host destinations as a reason for increasing complexity of migration

A

V SIGNIFICNAT:
happening in wide variety of areas
feedback loop created: long-term pattern due to increased inequalities
significant scale due to changing patterns of migration

92
Q

high conc. of young workers and female migrants: changing patterns of female migration

A

no. of female migrants increasing as global demand for labour focused on domestic work, services and hospitality has increased
2016, women comprised over 50% of worlds 232m migrants (first time over 1/2) (comprise 70/80% in some countries)
growing no. migrate as family breadwinner to enhance econ. opps by seeking jobs/ education. in charge of remittances: choose to spend money on health/education so improved welfare
enhanced independence, authority and worth, introduced to equitable social norms, improves rights
return home w/ SOCIAL REMITTANCES e.g. change gender stereotypes
men who have already migrated bring families to join them (% of women migrating to Greece doubled form 11-22% in 2016)
women and children are more likely to receive protection in EU countries, so risk the journey more frequently
BUT will be trafficked, suffer human rights abuses e.g. assault, rape

93
Q

high conc. of young workers and female migrants: YOUNG WORKERS

A

main reason = econ.: great employment opps, higher wages, remittances
pop.structure of migrant pops in Asia 2013: male dominated and largest groups= young, aged 25-39
demand for workers in oil-producing countries of Middle East e.g. UAE, Qatar = labour driven. flows dominated by young mass with high proportion working in construction. majority are low skilled: 2.6% work in education and 3.6% in health

94
Q

flows of south-south corridors are equal in magnitude to south-north corridors:
share of migrants in numbers and percentages for S-S and S-N corridors

A

S-S: 83 million and 36%
S-N: 82 million and 35%
2013

95
Q

what fraction of migrant remittances are sent between south-south flows in 2013?
examples of a key one

A

2/3 in 2013
Bangladesh-india corridor has the word’s 3rd largest bilateral flow of 3.3m migrants

96
Q

how do refugees contribute to these south-south flows with example

A

increased no. of refugees fleeing persecution/ conflict
e.g. 2.3m have migrated from Afghanistan to Pakistan

97
Q

4 main reasons for a growth in south-south flows

A
  1. restrictive administrative barriers for migrants from the south attempting to enter the north; often in response they redirect their migration to another south country
    2.the number of fast-growing economies in the south which offer employment opportunities and are increasingly accessible
  2. increased awareness of opportunities in the south resulting from improved communications and developing social and business networks
  3. preventative costs of moving to more distant ricer countries
98
Q

examples of 3 north-south flows and 2 south-south flows

A

Brazil -> Portugal
South Asia -> Australia and USA
N Africa/Middle East -> Europe
South Asia -> Middle East
intra-regional within Africa

99
Q

describe and explain Brazil -> Portugal flow of migrants

A

cultural links and colonial ties
some due to 2000 financial crash, which did not hit Brazil badly
established links and diasporal communities
increased quality of education and decreased inequality and unemployment in Europe

100
Q

describe and explain South Asia -> Australia and USA flow of migrants

A

LIDCs/EDCs->ACs
economic migrants
increased GDP and QoL, so social remittances
increased job opportunities, so remittances are sent home
brain drain and conflict/xenophobia

101
Q

describe and explain n africa/Middle East -> europe flows of migrants

A

economic migrants
refugees/asylum seekers fleeing in search of safety
brain drain and conflict/xenophobia
increased GDP and QoL, so social remittances
increased job opportunities, so remittances sent home

102
Q

describe and explain South Asia -> Middle East flow of migrants

A

economic migrants, who are mainly young men
rapid increase in development require many construction workers, which means an increased income for s asians, who send remittances home

103
Q

describe and explain intraregional flow of migrants within africa

A

refugees and asylum seekers travel short distances to flee conflict and violations of human rights
economic migrants migrate to regional hubs e.g. South Africa

104
Q

key facts of Burkina Faso/ Ivory Coast flow of migrants

A

high levels of intra-regional international migration in Western Africa
Burkina Faso is landlocked, LIDC, GDP of £820 per capita
Ivory Coast GDP is £1716 per capita, worlds largest exporter of cocoa, LIDC/EDC
in 2018, 243,776 ivorians in BF, many having fled conflict in IC
927,756 born in BF living in IC

105
Q

pull factors to the Ivory Coast from Burkina Faso?

A

employment opportunities and higher wages in IC’s cocoa/coffee plantations
income disparity is fairly small but sufficient to encourage significant flows
opportunities for migrant farmers in more fertile lands in IC
former French colonial administration in both: shared language, culture, currency so increased ease for BF to travel to the more prosperous IC

106
Q

significance of ‘flows in south-south corridors are equal in magnitude to flows in south-north corridors’ in the increasing complexity of migration

A

very significant magnitude: most migrants
LARGE SCALE
ONLY happening due to economic globalisation creating new host-source countries

107
Q

conflict and persecution have led to an increased number of refugees
how many refugees are there worldwide and how has this changed?

A

UNHCR says it has increased from 15.7m in 2012 to 26m in 2019

108
Q

where is the biggest source and host of refugees?

A

2019, syria= largest source (had been Afghanistan from 1985 to 2015)
turkey= largest host

109
Q

what percentage of refugees live in the global south?

A

85%

110
Q

what is an asylum seeker and how many applications for asylum were submitted in 2019?

A

a person who seeks entry to another country by claiming to be a refugee. those judged not to be refugees nor requiring protection are sent back to their home country
16.2 million asylum applications

111
Q

brief overview of conflict in syria

A

civil war began march 2011
6.6m IDPs
5.6m international refugees: a high % of these moved short distances
major factor in recent increase in number of refugees

112
Q

ow has the Syrian civil war impacted the region and what determines the host country that Syrian refugees end up in?

A

long journeys e.g. to EU depends on wealth
high % of international refugees moved short distances e.g. Lebanon received 892,000, turkey received 3.6m. therefore their services were overwhelmed so Lebanon introduced the requirement for an entry visa in January 2015

113
Q

what are the main reasons for the large number of global refugees?

A

effects of conflict including personal safety, loss of homes, access to services, damage to infrastructure including communications
political persecution, discrimination and violation of human rights
economic hardship including forced labour and modern slavery
impacts of natural hazards

114
Q

how have conflict and persecution increased the complexity of global migration?

A

the number of new conflicts is increasing
more complex pattern of refugees and asylum seekers
e.g. syria has complex pattern: although many move to neighbouring countries, others have sought asylum in europe so there are multiple destinations. journeys to europe are complex bc migrants have chosen not to stay in first point of entry, Greece, but move through S europe to Germany. opposition to their movement e.g. by Hungary has led to complexities at border crossings
addition of illegal economic migrants from N Africa increases complexity bc Govs must determine who are genuine asylum seekers and who are not

115
Q

significance of conflict and persecution in the increasing complexity of migration

A

not global
spatially uneven (not conflicts everywhere, mainly LIDCs)
temporally uneven (spikes in refugees e.g. syria 2011, N Africa 2016)
intra-regional/ short distances bc they cannot afford long migrations and can therefore overwhelm host countries, which arises political issues (who pays for refugees?)

116
Q

examples of changes in national immigration and emigration policies
broad impact of this

A

australia
pakistan
canada
changes in government policies regarding immigration and emigration can also affect flows of people by encouraging or discouraging movement in or out

117
Q

what causes changes in host country’s immigration roles

A

laws governing economic migration vary over time in line with changes in workforce needs
e.g. UK gov adopted ‘open door’ approach in 1950s and early 2000s in relation to skills and labour shortages arising
host countries differ greatly in terms of how liberal their international migration rules are

118
Q

how do immigration rules relate to TNC investment and global integration?

A

gov adopts liberal immigration rules to become integrated into global systems
inward investment from TNCs may depend partly on the ease with which a company can transfer senior staff into a nation

119
Q

changes in national immigration policies: example of australia

A

1970s, gov had ‘White Australia Policy’
since the 1970s, Australia has operated a non-racial skills based ‘points’ system, controlling who is allowed to enter the country
australia has had a different approach to asylum seekers. mandatory detention centres introduced in 1992 due to rise in no. of asylum seekers from Asia
2001, offshore detention centres in Papua New Guinea until 2009, reducing no. of unauthorised arrivals by boat
2012, >100 boats carrying >5000 refugees from Afghanistan and Iraq in particular arrived in australia. 100s died en route
2013, ‘Operation Sovereign Borders’ established: no migrants arriving illegally by boat would ever be granted asylum to discourage people smuggling by boat

120
Q

what was the White Australia Policy?

A

encouraged young, mainly european families to migrate there
some uk families were offered assisted passages, costing just £10
this affected the present day cultural mix in australia and is a reason why British are largest foreign born immigrant group in australia today

121
Q

what is Australia’s ‘points’ system
why was it established

A

prospective migrants must pass a points based skills test, based on employment record (to match skills shortages), educational qualifications, age and the ability to speak English
done to help them increase their pool of skilled and professional people

122
Q

summarise Pakistans emigration policy

A

gov= pro-emigration. there are 7m Pakistanis working abroad. 96% of these are in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries
2013, migrant remittances= $11.5b (5th largest in world): vital for socioeconomic development of pakistan
national policy has requirement to promote emigration and protect migrants

123
Q

Pakistan key facts

A

lower-middle income country
196.1m population in 2014. 45% of which are under 20 y/o
GDP $4736 per capita
HDI= 0.537

124
Q

pakistan national policy details

A

promote export of manpower abroad
encourage female participation in overseas employment
support for social networks abroad
ratification of conventions regarding worker and human rights
training institutions for youth= preparation to work abroad

125
Q

Canada key facts

A

population= 35.1 million
AC
GDP= $44,843 per capita, 2013
GDP growth rate of 2.5%
HDI= 0.902

126
Q

summarise canadas immigration policy

A

changes made to immigration policy in 2015 to address skills gap in labour market
aimed at canals LT requirements for engineers, IT specialists and healthcare workers
migrants ranked on point system, which enables young, highly skilled immigrants to be fast-tracked e.g. in 20s, graduates
job offer grants lots of points
tries to employ own citizens first
ST: canada has agreed to take 10,000 Syrian refugees over a 30 year period form 2015

127
Q

do the ACs or LIDCs have more power and control when it comes to migration policies?

A

ACs bc their laws dominate/control flows of migrants (=destination countries)
LIDCs’ migration policies usually encourage emigration: can be very beneficial to developing nation due to social and monetary remittances. however the direction of emigration/flows of migrants is limited by destination countries as Acs can be selective

128
Q

how does AC/LIDC control over migration affect the positives and negatives that each country gets from migration?

A

ACs: tend to have more benefits than negatives from migration (if disadvantages dominated, Acs wouldn’t allow the migration to occur)
LIDCs: more positive benefits from migrant remittances. can have negative impacts bc AC will want and only accept young, econ. active workforce-> BRAIN DRAIN for source country.

129
Q

development of distinct corridors of bilateral flows common nature

A

some routes along which migration is more marked than others
many are between southern countries, usually intra-regional (short distance)

130
Q

what is bi-lateral migration?
characteristics

A

migration flow between 2 countries. number of migrants, their composition and the directions of flow are important characteristics

131
Q

8 reasons that key bilateral migrants flows develop

A

costs of travel which may be related to proximity
ease of access & communication between the 2 countries
efficiency and cost of sending remittances
employment opps and wage differentials
established diaspora communities and networks
effects of conflict & persecution
migration policy (accession to econ. unions & refugees)
former colonial influence e.g. language, culture

132
Q

examples of bilateral flows

A

Mexico->usa= established route: large and long-standing before, now significantly reduced
Myanmar->thailand= large no.s of refugees: new significant flow

133
Q

key ideas of migration unit: population chnage significance of development of distinct corridors of bilateral flows in the increasing complexity of migration

A

NOT V SIGNIFICANT
other factors have caused bilateral flows (more as a result of other causes e.g. globalisation, conflict etc)
global integration & interdependence have proceeded rapidly w/ increasing flows of trade/capital/tech/info/ideas/peoples: playing an important part in these globalisation processes, contributing significantly in socio-eco. interdependence

134
Q

what makes getting accurate, uniform, reliable statistics on migrants difficult

A

many migrants move illegally and are not officially registered

135
Q

differences of impacts of LIDC-EDC migration vs LIDC-AC migration

A

LIDC-EDC: usually clever, young, hardworking migrants filling in more sophisticated, skilled, higher paying jobs in labour market: drivers of eon. growth/dev BUT brain drain in the LIDC. but also often lower-skilled, construction workers
LIDC-AC: migrants fill less wanted gaps in labour market and stimulate econ. growth and PME. more temporary migration potentially. more skilled migrants also move to AC for higher pay. remittances and brain drain.

136
Q

do impacts of migration differ dependent on development of country?

A

less dev. countries see pos. impacts of migration e.g. remittances and taxes causing PME and speeding up econ. growth. more reliant on remittances and migrant workers but also are more impacted by Brain drain

137
Q

what is Brazil’s national language?

A

Portuguese

138
Q

what is interdependence?

A

the idea that 2 places impact on each other and are mutually reliant on each other; this could be politically, socially or economically

139
Q

Brazil has flows with which countries?

A

spain/portugal
Japan
haiti

140
Q

describe Brazil & portugal’s interdependence

A

longs-standing bilateral relationship.
Brazil was a former colony of Portugal: Portuguese gov gives special status to Brazilian immigrants
for eon. migrants, Portugal is a gateway for entry to the EU due to shared language, ancestry and family ties easing the transition and integration
reciprocal migration is supported by the well-developed social diaspora networks in both countries
migrant remittances are an important econ. factor for many families

141
Q

number of migrants moving between Brazil and portugal

A

portugal to brazil= 140,000
Brazil to portugal=140,000
2013

142
Q

describe the interdependence between Brazil and haiti

A

political, econ. and humanitarian relations
National Immigration Council for Brazil enables Haitians immigrants to obtain visas fairly easily in Haiti, reducing their vulnerability to trafficking networks: BENEFIT to Haitians who have struggled to recover from 2010 EQ and 2012 hurricane sandy
Haitians may intend to join friends/family in SE of Brazil were low-skilled jobs are available in agriculture and factories of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina

143
Q

what were the effects of Haiti’s 2010 earthquake?

A

1.5 million displaced

144
Q

Haiti number of immigrants in 2020 in Brazil

A

135000

145
Q

why is the number of immigrants to Brazil form Haiti increasing?

A

Haitians attempting to escape political instability, unemployment, poverty, poor access to education, country’s appalling human rights record (esp. gender-based violence)

146
Q

treatment of Haitians in Brazil?

A

much xenophobia is present, leading to friction between local people and immigrants
many in shelters awaiting documentation. poor hygiene and sanitation, overcrowded so v. poor QoL
easy prey for people looking for slave labour so are exploited

147
Q

describe the interdependence between brazil and USA

A

1000s of low-skilled econ. migrants working in USA remit significant monies, while returning migrants contribute to Brazilian dev. with their acquired skills and knowledge(strong links in education and teacher training)
highly skilled Brazilians find opps to work in USA esp. in service sector, BRAIN DRAIN
USA negotiated agreements w/ Brazil regarding agriculture, trade, finance, education, defence
USAID gives support to Brazil in env. projects e.g. practical help training Xavante indigenous people to protect their tribal lands from forest fires and assisting Brazilian gov designing and implementing laws concerning forest governance and sustainable forest management

148
Q

number of migrants between USA and Brazil

A

USA to Brazil: 20,000
Brazil to USA: 370,000

149
Q

describe historic flows between Japan and brazil

A

1908= start of the long-established link therefore japanese culture is v. integrated: BRAZILIANISATION of migrants so mix of cultures
anti Japanese-migrants in USA, so they went to Latin America esp. Brazil
188,000 japanese migrants to Brazil between 1908 and 1941
brazilian GDP dropped (stagnation of economy) so there was mass return migration to Japan (they could earn 4-5 times more money in Brazil) BRAIN DRAIN IN BRAZIL. Japan economy boom in 1990s
LT= less xenophobia, more assimilation of culture, established japanese communities

150
Q

number of migrants between Japan and Brazil

A

Japan to Brazil= 50,000
Brazil to Japan=370,000

151
Q

examples of economic interdependence in global systems

A

growth of TNCs accelerates cross-border mutual exchanges of money and merchandise
flows of migrant workers are often essential for a country’s economic success: in return, migrants send home remittances to source country
in an interconnected world, many countries are no longer self-sufficient in vital commodities e.g. food, energy, water. there are widespread relations of mutual reliance

152
Q

examples of social interdependence in global systems

A

international migration builds extensive family networks across national borders. this can strengthen friendships between countries (e.g. India and the UK)
remittances sent home by migrants generates up to 38% of GDP for some poorer states (Tonga). Funds families’ education and health. migrants contribute to health and education of host country e.g. NHS workers, taxes
social remittances brought by return migrants

153
Q

examples of political interdependence in global systems

A

growth of trade blocs (EU, ASEAN) has created complex international & global gov. structures which countries co-create and are legally bound by
Govs of some pairs/groups of countries depend on each other during econ/political crises e.g. UK and USA
the World Bank, IMF and WTO work globally to harmonise national economic rules

154
Q

examples of environmental interdependence in global systems

A

never been a greater need to co-operate on global environmental threats e.g. CC, ocean pollution, biodiversity loss. bc all countries depend on global common, there is mutual nee to share responsibility and help mitigate risks
agreements and treaties only work if mass of countries ratify them e.g. 2015 Paris Agreement
aid through environmental projects e.g. USA and Brazil debt swap

155
Q

impacts of migration on Brazil: economic development

A

waves of immigration contributed to growth in agricultural and manufacturing sectors
recent arrivals of highly skilled profs with employment contracts have contributed to entrepreneurship, innovation and reducing gaps in the labour market
emigration resulted in migrant remittances sent to Brazil, used by families to improve houses, for education & in general consumption: contributed to dev. at all scales
bilateral trade agreements e.g. w/ Japan

156
Q

value of migrant remittances in Brazil

A

$3.8b in 2020
0.25% of GDP

157
Q

describe brazil’s bilateral trade agreement with Japan

A

> 450 japanese companies operate out of Brazil & Brazil ranks 10th for FDI into Japan. Brazil supplies minerals, coffee, chicken and wood to Japan (70% of all bauxite used in Japan for aluminium is from Brazil)
boosts GDP

158
Q

the impact of migration on Brazil: political stability

A

Brazil has stable & democratic political system & is important member of G20 and OECD & is a BRIC (emerging economy)
MERCOSUR leading member: trading bloc w/ free flow of trade, capital & labour migration. has helped S American integration and promotion of political stability
stable political relationships between Brazil & countries with which it shares sig. bilateral flows (USA,Japan)
Brazil= important receiver of env & political refugees; gov accepts responsibility for their welfare & employment prospects by providing visas & work permits
politicians concerned about losing elections as result of anti-immigration backlash
haitian immigrants=conc in NW so can be a source of political instability

159
Q

impact of migration on Brazil: social inequality

A

arrival of inter-regional e.g. european workers promotes cultural diversity in Brazil
UNESCO says there are inequalities in Brazilian society between different ethnic groups. inequalities exist in housing provision, access to services, educational attainment & income. Brazilian of African descent r most affected
inequalities have a spatial perspective w/ poverty conc in rural areas/ favelas where poor migrate to
prejudice & discrimination in labour market esp. against black/indigenous pops: impedes their full eon,political & social dev
illegal migrants accept poor working conditions & low wages @ jobs bc of vulnerable position

160
Q

Laos key patterns of emigration and immigration?

A

net migration loss is high: 1.1 migrants per 1000 of population in 2014
930,000 migrants in Thailand in 2013
200,000 migrants to USA in 2013
economic migrants leaving for higher wages and more job opportunities in more developed countries
highest immigrant group= 10,000 from Vietnam (all immigrant groups intraregional)
interdependence between Laos and Thailand (EDC, developing, closest wealthy state)
immigration is minimal. immigrants work there on World Bank funded programs or large construction projects

161
Q

Laos causes of emigration

A

limited incomes (e.g. subsistence farming) and financial processes w/ lack of alternatives in rural areas
food insecurity, water shortages, droughts, too little land
daily minimum wage in Thailand is 3x higher, so higher monthly earnings. for many families, remittances are the main income
low education levels, so pop. is only suited to unskilled jobs: plenty of these in Thailand
migration is easier due to language, culture and brokers assisting passage
established routes

162
Q

laos figures as a country

A

ASEAN member since 1997
73% employed in agriculture
landlocked LIDC
7.5 million population
GDP/capita $2535 (2021)

163
Q

what migration policies exist in Laos?

A

Laos= source country for human trafficking
with 1/3 of pop. under 15y/o, plenty are entering working age w/ few prospects so are easy targets. forced labour and sex work in Thailand are issues of concern to gov. and international organisations
PROBLEM: gov. policies have been ineffective so people leave w/o passport and are fined on return. gov. now work closely with UN agencies (e.g. UNICEF) and NGOs (e.g. Save the Children) to implement stronger controls
national plan of action for human trafficking aims: prevention (awareness to decrease poverty and therefore emigration), protection (reintegration of migrants e.g. shelters for women), prosecution (stronger border controls and laws to punish traffickers)
ASEAN member so has freer movement of skilled labour e.g. healthcare

164
Q

interdependence created between Laos and Thailand?

A

positive feedback loop created!
migration corridor is dominated by outward flow of unskilled Laotians to Thailand, contributing to Thai economy in construction, agriculture, fisheries, factory work. remittances aid development in Laos
Mekong River Commission to mange flooding & economic activities in basin e.g. Don Sahong HEP
rail links agreements signed in 2012 open Laos up to development and increase the interdependence between L,T and Vietnam
Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking (COMMIT)
Co-operation Committee established. friendship bridge strengthens communications and trade. Thailand= principal access to sea for Laos and has funded large health service development and drugs treatment centre

165
Q

opportunities created by Laos migration?

A

migration corridor between Laos and Thailand= 1 of largest in ASEAN, has helped stimulate political & econ. cooperation in terms of trade, investment, dev. projects & security
bilateral relations w/ Vietnam extend beyond reciprocal labour migration: there is econ. cooperation e.g. Vietnam involved in >400 investment projects in Laos
migrant remittances = $435m (8% of GDP) so v. important to life of returnees & migrants’ families. esp. bc 22% below poverty line in Laos so dev. promoted & sig. econ. impacts local scale. PME
political stability improving between Laos, Thailand & Vietnam
increased skills (but 16% said not improved) ,working experience and gained network means knowledge is brought back and can have higher wages in future

166
Q

challenges caused by Laos migration?

A

most econ. migrants from Laos are low-skilled, less educated and <18y/o @ 1st migration. many travel illegally so are vulnerable to human trafficking, forced labour and exploitation. Laos gov. policy is difficult to implement, and, for its success, depends on transnational governance by orgs e.g. Civil Society, UN
loss of skilled labour e.g. mechanics to Thailand (BRAIN DRAIN & pos. feedback loop). set to increase if wage differentials remain high and there is freer movement within ASEAN members
Laos garment industry= largest sector of manufacturing employment, but its growth depends on improved working conditions in factories of Vientiane & retention of many young female workers who may leave seeking higher wages in Thailand
2001-11: >1500 human trafficking victims, leading to mental and physical health impacts
migrants lack access to healthcare

167
Q

USA immigration patterns
(vague)

A

has strong influence on global migration bc attracts people & is honeypot destination
increasing numbers of immigrants but rate of growth may be slowing

168
Q

what percentage of USA population is migrants?

A

13%
41 million people

169
Q

number of nationalities with over 50,000 migrants in USA?

A

78
9 w/ over 1 million

170
Q

what % of USA immigrants do Mexicans account for?

A

28%

171
Q

main source countries for USA immigration?

A

Mexico, china, philippines, india, Puerto Rico, El Salvador, cuba, south korea, vietnam

172
Q

what does this image suggest?

A

v. high % of population is of Mexican origin in SW (near Mexican border/ within territory which previously belonged to Mexico)
spatial variation, more impacts on border states
higher conc in cities

173
Q

why did immigration levels to USA drop after 2008?

A

economic crash/recession so less jobs available
industries migrants work in e.g. construction especially hit so less immigrants (some return to Mexico)
migration policies also became stricter (esp. under trump presidency)

174
Q

why was number of immigrants from Mexico to US high in 1995 to 2000

A

economy booming
immigration laws were relaxed

175
Q

how many migrants could there be in USA by 2030?

A

130 million due to birth rate and immigration

176
Q

border control stats USA

A

> 3000 border control officers
fence along 1/3 of it
border control resources are stretched bc 140,000 immigrants per month in 2018

177
Q

future stats of immigrants from Guatemala and Honduras to USA
why?
impact?

A

10% of pop will go to USA in next 10 years if rate stays the same
violence, poverty, drought. children increase chance of staying
BRAIN DRAIN

178
Q

what is the USA-Mexico migration corridor an example of?

A

South-North intra regional migrant flow

179
Q

who controls the USA-Mexico migration corridor?

A

USA. richer country always controls the flow (through immigration policies and border control) and will always benefit more from the flows.
exacerbates inequalities between countries.

180
Q

economic pull factors to USA

A

well paid jobs (wage differentials so opportunities to send remittances)
GNP of $24,750
many job opportunities for both low & high skilled workers

181
Q

political pull factors to USA

A

esp in 1995-2000, immigration policies encouraged migration of economic migrants in line with gaps in labour market (Green Card) (esp. w/ democrats in charge)
possibility of obtaining Green Card

182
Q

social pull factors to USA

A

excellent medical facilities: 400 people per doctor
adult literacy rates 99%
life expectancy 76 years
family reunification

183
Q

USA visa types

A

family visa
econ. visa / Green Card
refugee visa
diverse immigrant visa
humanitarian visa

184
Q

how many permanent immigrants does USA allow each year?

A

675,000
separate number of refugees

185
Q

describe USA family visa

A

reunification of famlies- 480,000 visas available yearly for family members to join US citizens/legal residents

186
Q

describe USA economic visa

A

admission of migrants with skills valuable to US economy: 140,000 visas available for highly skilled workers, normally sponsored by employer for specific job offer

187
Q

describe USA refugee visa

A

protecting refugees: no. of admissions decided yearly
in 2013, 70,000

188
Q

describe USA diverse immigrant visa

A

promoting diversity. 50,000 immigrant visas per year, drawn by random selection, from countries w/ low rates of immigration to USA
2014= mainly African countries

189
Q

describe USA humanitarian visas

A

humanitarian relief. temporary visas each year for relief from natural disasters or ongoing armed conflict

190
Q

social interdependence developed between Mexico and USA

A

in 2013, 11.5m Mexicans in USA and 1m Americans in Mexico
each has its largest diaspora living in the other therefore grows social and cultural connectivity

191
Q

economic interdependence developed between Mexico and USA

A

low-skilled Mexicans (mainly illegal) contribute to US econ. by working in agriculture, construction & low-paid services. wage differentials so opps for remittances via formal channels: $22b in 2013= 2% of Mexico GDP
since NAFTA formation, bilateral trade between USA/Mexico has increased significantly. reciprocal merchandise= $1.4b daily. Mexican industry has benefitted e.g. dev. of aerospace and IT sectors boosted by FDI from USA

geography (10 decks)

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