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ISS > Midterms > Flashcards

Midterms Flashcards

1
Q

Essay Points

A

how might humans affect their environ & vice versa

envrion -> human:

  • drought
  • earthquakes
  • floods
  • hurricanes
  • landslides
  • space weather - refers to sun & space. could damage critical infrastructure i.e. electric grid
  • thunderstorms
  • tornadoes
  • tsunamis
  • volcanoes
  • wildfires
  • winter storms

humans -> environ:

  • water
    • tankers & offshore rigs can cause oil spills
    • industries may dump chemical waste tht enters & pollutes the water supply
    • feritlizers & pesticides from farms can seep into groundwater & cause harm
    • untreated sewage
  • land
    • chemical waste poisons fertile topsoil
    • solid waste is dumped in landfills
    • radioactive waste from nuclear power plants & toxic runoff from chemical processing plants
    • deforestation
    • overplowing, etc.
  • air
    • burning of fossil fuels by industries & vehicles -> smog
    • acidic chemicals in air pollution combine w/ precipitation to form acid rain
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2
Q

6 purposes of gov’t

A

form a more perfect Union

establish Justice

insure domestic tranquility

provide for the common defense

promote the general welfare

secure the blessings of liberty

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3
Q

form a more perfect Union

A

to form a country tht is btr than other countries in existence & a true union of the states

any action taken by the gov’t has to be done for the good of the nation.

accept losses and learn from them

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4
Q

establish Justice

A

to establish a just society; mostly Judicial Branch

“fair” doesn’t always mean “equal” - means what u deserve (segregation = “equal” but not fair)

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5
Q

insure domestic Tranquility

A

maintain a peaceful/lawful/orderly society

peace @ home

police, firefighters (police have limits, too)

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6
Q

provide for the common defence

A

to protect its citizens & sovereignty against hostile enemies

marines, navy(sea), army(land), ari force(pretty new but very good), coast guard(drug trafficking, search & rescue, illegal immigrants, boat licenses)

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7
Q

Why is the National Guard not really national?

A

most of the time, under the control of individual states, w/ the state governor acting as commander in chief

however, prez can activitate the National Guard and place it under federal control

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8
Q

promote the general welfare

A

raise the wellbeing of the general population

(Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, food stamps, welfare checks, Obamacare)

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9
Q

secure the Blessings of Liberty

A

gift of being able to choose

even free to break the law, altho u’ll be punished

passed on by the gov’t, parents, teachers, rep’s, leaders of any industry

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10
Q

4 characteristics of states

A

territory (definable boundaries)

gov’t (system of order)

population (significant amount)

sovereignty (supreme & absolute power in its own territory)

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11
Q

y r the 50 states not actually states?

A

don’t have sovereignty.

federal gov’t supreme over state gov’t

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12
Q

4 origins of the state

A

Force Theory

Evolutionary Theory

Divine Right Theory

Social Contract Theory

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13
Q

Force Theory

A

1 person/group claimed an area & forced all w/in it 2 submit

based on physical prowess

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14
Q

Evolutionary Theory

A

developed out of primitive family

1 head person = gov’t

family → network of related families(clan) → tribe → tribe w/ agriculture & not nomadic → state

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15
Q

what 2 theories of the origin of the state could merge together?

A

force & evolutionary cuz both use physical power

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16
Q

Divine Right Theory

A

widely acceptedi n much of WEstern world

15-18th centuries

state created by God, who had given royal ppl a “divine” right 2 rule

disobeying = moral sin & treason

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17
Q

more common form of “divine right”

A

chosen by God to rule

Europe, China, Japan

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18
Q

rare form of “divine right”

A

ruler = god

Alexander the Great

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19
Q

Social Contract Theory

A

ppl w/in a given area agreed 2 give up to the state as much power as was needed for all’s wellbeing

state exists only 2 serve the ppl

rulers & ruled agree to legitimate behavior

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20
Q

what elements of the state does the social contract theory have?

A

popular sovereignty

limited gov’t

individual rights

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21
Q

pros of social contract theory

A

security, civility, guaranteed certain freedoms

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22
Q

cons of social contract theory

A

loss of absolute freedom(autonomy), uncertainty of illegitimate leaders

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23
Q

3 gov’t categories

A

relationship b/w legisl & exec branches

distribution of power

who can participate

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24
Q

relationship b/w legis & exec branches

A

presidential or parliamentary

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25
Q

presidential gov’t

A

executive is elected outside of legis by populace

USA

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26
Q

parliamentary gov’t

A

Prime Minister elected from w/in legis

Parliament elects PM

UK

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27
Q

distribution of power

A

unitary

federal

confederate

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28
Q

unitary gov’t

A

a single, central level as source of power

North Korea & UK

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29
Q

federal gov’t

A

national = supreme over local

USA (Article 6, Sec. 2 National Supremacy Clause)

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30
Q

confederate gov’t

A

local = supreme over national

loose alliance of states

Articles of Confederation, Confederate States of Am

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31
Q

who can participate

A

dictatorship

democracy

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32
Q

dictatorship gov’t

A

@ least 1 person/entity

above the law

North Korea

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33
Q

democracy

A

pure/direct -or- representative/republic

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34
Q

pure/direct democracy

A

everyone votes on every issue

rare

Lord of the Flies

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35
Q

representative/republic democracy

A

the populace elects ppl to go vote on every issue

USA

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36
Q

5 foundations of democracy

A

fundamental worth of the individual

equality of all persons

majority rule & minority rights

necessity of compromise

individual freedom

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37
Q

fundamental worth of the individual

A

everything a demo society does should be done w/in the limits of this concept

democracy serves the many who, as individual, together make up a society

one person = one vote

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38
Q

equality of all person

A

everyone is equal:

  • before the law
  • in opportunity
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39
Q

equal in opportunity

A

no person should be held back 4 any arbitrary reasons like race, color, religion, / gender

ppl should be free 2 develop themselves as fully as they possibly can

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40
Q

majority rule & minority right

A

majority = usually right

democracy = trial & error - not looking for “right” answers but satisfactory solutions 2 public problems

majority rule can be abused, so restrained by minority rights (willing to listen, right to become majority)

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41
Q

compromise

A

process of blending & adjusting competing views & interests in order 2 find the position most acceptable 2 the largest # of ppl

absolutely necessary for progress

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42
Q

necessity of compromise

A

democracy puts individ. 1st AND insists each is equal - how else can ppl w/ so many diff opinions make public decisions?

few public decisions have only 2 sides, often several answers

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43
Q

individual freedom

A

dem. can thrive only w/ individual freedom but can’t insist on complete freedom 4 individ → anarchy

your right to choose, right or wrong, despite the consequenes guaranteed in a democracy

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44
Q

Magna Carta

A

1215

against King John (son of King Richard the Lionheart)

trial by jury. due process of law. protection against arbitrary taking of life, liberty, or property. limited gov’t

1st doc to limit power of a king

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45
Q

due process of law

A

all legal proceedings will be fair & consistent & one will be given notice of the proceedings & an opportunity to be heard before the gov’t acts to take away 1’s life, liberty, or property

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46
Q

Petition of Right

A

1628 during English Civil War

king can’t imprison political critics w/out trial by jury; can’t declare martial law during peacetime; nor require ppl 2 give gift, loan, tax, etc. w/out common consent of Parliament. quartering of soldiers. challenged divine right of kings. kings not above the law.

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47
Q

martial law

A

rule by the military

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48
Q

English Bill of Rights

A
  1. during Glorious/Bloodless Revolution

no standing army in peacetime unless by consent of Parliament. all Parliamentary elections = free. king can’t suspend/execute laws w/out Parliamentary consent. levying $ for/to the crown is illegal. subj’s can petition the king & prosecution for petition = illegal. right to fair & speedy trial. freedom from excessive bail & from cruel & unusual punishment.

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49
Q

Thomas Hobbes

A
  1. influenced by English Civil War (which was bad)

Leviathan

gov’t should be powerful cuz humans = inherently wicked/selfish.

w/out gov’t life would be “brutish, nasty, & short”

benevolent monarchy = ideal gov’t (altho monarchy could become bad)

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50
Q

John Locke

A
  1. influenced by Glorious Revolution.

2 Treatises of Gov’t

less gov’t = ideal cuz humans r basically moral

respected Hobbes, just didn’t agree w/ him

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51
Q

3 types of ppl (John Locke)

A

materialist - Hobbes. life has only concrete meaning

idealist - Locke. life has hidden, special meaning

dualist - Rosseau. combo of both

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52
Q

Jean Jacques Rosseau

A

Du Contract Social

“man = born free but is everywhere in chains”

believed France = beacon of light 4 gov’t style

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53
Q

materialistic & idealistic interpretations of Rosseau’s quote

A

materialist - free of clothes, ability to survive

idealist - free of rules & shame

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54
Q

Voltaire

A

1694-1778

France

wealthy family. disowned (they thought he was studying finance but actually philosophy)

champion of social justice (anti-classism)

“In praise of British Gov’t” banished for life.

spread in lots of countries including France cuz young ppl told not 2 study Voltaire

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55
Q

who did all of the social contract philosophers influence?

A

Thomas Jefferson

Hobbes - federal

Locke - life, liberty, equality, perfect Union

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56
Q

6 principles of the constitution

A

popular sovereignty

limited gov’t

separation of powers

checks & balances

judicial review

federalism

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57
Q

popular sovereignty

A

everyone has a vote in creating something (such as a law)

the source of power in our country

1852 Kansas-Nebraska Act - let ppl vote on whether to be slave state/not.

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58
Q

limited gov’t

A

gov’t is not all powerful

in democracy, no king. law is king. law = for people. ppl = source of power

rule of law

authority of gov’t = adequate to needs of society but never overpowering

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59
Q

separation of powers

A

make law (leg - Congress)

enforce law (exec - Prez)

interpret law (jud - Supreme Court)

power of king divided in 3

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60
Q

checks & balances

A

how our gov’t prevents branches from getting too powerful

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61
Q

judicial branch checks

A

L - courts may declare acts of Congress to be unconsitutional

E - judges r free from exec control

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62
Q

legislative branch checks

A

J - Congress creates lower courts, may remove judges thru impeachment

E - may override veto by 2/3 vote

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63
Q

executive branch checks

A

J - prez appoints Supreme Court justices & other federal judges

L - prez may veto legislation & call special sessions

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64
Q

judicial review

A

power to determine the constitutionality of laws AND actions

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65
Q

federalism

A

division of power among a central gov’t & several regional gov’ts

Article 6 Sec. 2 National Supremacy Clause

Federalism doesn’t exist w/out local gov’t (Amendment 10)

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66
Q

Marbury vs. Madison

A

1803

courts r empowered to interpret the consitutionality of laws and actions’

madison refuses to step down

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67
Q

Articles of Confederation

A

agreement ratified in 1781 by the 13 original states;

provided a legal symbol of their union by giving the central gov’t no coercive power over the states or their citizens

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68
Q

newest & oldest origin of states theories

A

newest: Social Contract
oldest: Divine Right

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69
Q

royal colonies

A

crown rule

governor from source of power above –> for US , from source below

pays taxes to the gov’t

Virginia

all colonies were considered this type of colony by Americans in 1776

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70
Q

charter colonies

A

self-rule

still had to follow a charter but had a lot of liberty –> both have lesser parts involved that have rights

MA, CT, RI

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71
Q

proprietary colonies

A

proprietors given land by king

owned & operated by proprietors

open minded

owner-operated (like our economy w/ businesses)

PA (William Penn from George I), Maryland

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72
Q

what type of thing was the Glorious/Bloodless Revolution?

A

a peaceful transition of power

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73
Q

rule of law

A

no one is above the law

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74
Q

Constitution

A

each application for admission to the union requires this “plan for gov’t” tht lays down the laws for the rulers & the ruled

a body of fundamental principles/established precedents according to which a state/other organization is acknowledged to be governed

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75
Q

formal amendment process 4 methods

A

1) 2/3 Congress. 3/4 state legislatures. used 26x
2) 2/3 Congress, 3/4 state conventions. used 1x
3) 2/3 national convention, 3/4 state legislatures
4) 2/3 national convention. 3/4 state conventions

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76
Q

informal amendment process

A

US Code of Titles Statutes

don’t completely change laws (Ex: No Child Left Behind Act)

1) basic legislation by Congress
2) actions taken by Prez
3) decisions of supreme court (Marbury vs. Madison)
4) activities of political parties
5) custom

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77
Q

basic legislation by Congress

A

Congress passes “statutes” that add details to existing Articles & Amendments

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78
Q

executive action

A

exhibited by the prez blocking trade w/ a country who doesn’t have a good relationship w/ the US

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79
Q

activities of political parties

A

major parties have held national conventions

Congress does many things based on parties

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80
Q

custom

A

gov’t ceremonies of tradition

Cabinet, VP -> P, no 3rd terms, Pomp & Circumstance)

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81
Q

formal amendment

A

change/addition that becomes part of the written language of the Const itself thru 1 of 4 methods set forth in the Const

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82
Q

informal amendment

A

changes 2 the Constitution that don’t lead 2 changes in the written document

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83
Q

Bill of Rights

A

a statement of fundamental rights of the US ppl, in Amendments 1-10

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84
Q

what supreme court decisions have caused informal amendments?

A

1896 - Plessy vs. Ferguson (segregation legal)

1954 - Brown vs. Board of Edu (segregation illegal)

1966 - Miranda vs. Az (accused must be read Miranda rights & told wat they’re being accused of)

1973 - Roe vs. Wade (abortion illegal)

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85
Q

12th Amendment

A

used to be lozer prez becomes VP, but now prez & VP run together

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86
Q

25th Amendment

A

allows VP to replace P if P dies/resigns (informal amendment)

VP -> speaker of the house -> pro tempore of the senate -> secretary of state -> secretary of treasury -> secretary of defense -> ……. -> secretary of homeland security

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87
Q

why is it so hard to formally amend the Constitution?

A

security

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88
Q

government

A

the body w/ the power to make &/or enforce laws 2 control a country, land area, ppl, / organization

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89
Q

sovereignty

A

(of a nation) the state of making laws & controlling resources w/out the coercion of other nations

(of a ruler) supreme authority over all things

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90
Q

state

A

a nation/territory considered as an organized political community under one gov’t

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91
Q

supremacy

A

the state/condition of being superior to all others in authority, power, or status

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92
Q

bicameral

A

having 2 separate legislative houses

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93
Q

unicameral

A

having a single legis chamber

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94
Q

charter

A

a document issued by some authority, creating a public/private institution & defining its purposes & privileges

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95
Q

trial by jury

A

a jury either makes a decision/makes findings of fact, which r then aplied by a judge

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96
Q

public policy

A

the principles, often unwritten, on which social laws r based

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97
Q

boycott

A

w/drawal frm commercial/social relations w/ a country/org/person as a punishment/protest

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98
Q

ratification

A

the act of confirming by expressing consent

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99
Q

legislative branch

A

House = 435 members, 2 yr terms

Senate = 100 member, 6 year terms

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100
Q

apportionment

A

the distribution in the House among the seats on the basis of their respective populations

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101
Q

House of Reps qualifications

A

25 years old

citizen/inhabitant in their state 7 yrs

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102
Q

Senate qualifications

A

30 yrs old

ctz/inhb 9 yrs

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103
Q

President qualifications

A

35 yrs

natural-brn citizen

lived in US for @ least 14 years

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104
Q

natural born citizen

A

born on US soil, born of 1 Am. citizen

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105
Q

Virginia Plan

A

3 branches

2 houses (1 pop based, the other donation based)

better for big states

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106
Q

NJ Plan

A

unicameral (equal representation)

better for smaller states

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107
Q

CT Compromise

A

merged the VA & NJ Plans

bicameral {House [pop. rep.] & Senate[equal rep])

3 branches (leg, ex, jud)

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108
Q

3/5 Compromise

A

each slave = 3/5 person

population including slaves in South = huge, so this made it more equal for smaller states

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109
Q

3 Basic Econ Q’s

A

What 2 Produce

how 2 produce

for whom 2 produce

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110
Q

what 2 produce

A

use readily available resources

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111
Q

how 2 produce

A

The methods and labor used as well as the quality of items produced are important factors.

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112
Q

for whom to produce

A

demographic

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113
Q

4 Economic Systems

A

traditional

market

command

mixed

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114
Q

traditional economy

A

bartering breeds inconsistent success

what 2 produce - handcrafts, farm animals and farming crops

how 2 produce - by the family unit or in small tribes/collectives all local to the area it is consumed in.

for whom 2 produce - the family, tribe etc to use or to be traded locally for other handcrafts, animals or crops.

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115
Q

market economy

private enterprise system

free enterprise system

capitalism

A

hypothetical

not influenced by gov’t, but instead by greed

demand driven by consumers

what 2 produce: whatever the consumers want

how 2 produce: firms should be both productively efficient and alloctively efficient

for whom: The free market system tends to create an unfair distribution of income. The wealthy consume a disproportionately large share of what is produced.

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116
Q

command economy

A

does exist

complete & dictatorial

gov’t controls 3Q

what: gov’t decides
how: gov’t decides

for whom:tries to be fair in distributing the output of the economy.

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117
Q

mixed economy

A

blend of command & market

what: determined by the demand of the consumer, unless the government institutes requirements for what to produce
how: determined by suppliers seeking for the most cost-effective way to produce goods, unless the government institutes regulations such as environmental standards

for whom: determined by the people who can afford to pay for goods, unless the government makes something a priority to provide (education, for example)

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118
Q

when may a mixed economy have gov’t interference?

A

to promote fair competition

to protect national security

to promote the well-being of the state

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119
Q

Law of Supply

A

microeconomic law stating that, all other factors being equal, as p of g/s increases, q offered by suppliers increases as well

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120
Q

Law of Demand

A

microeconomic law stating that, all other factors being equal, as p of g/s increases, consumer demand decreases

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121
Q

laws of supply & demand

A

theories abt the interaction b/w supply of a g/s & demand for it

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122
Q

equilibrium

A

when supply & demand r equal (when the supply & demand functions intersect)

@ this point, allocation of goods is @ its most efficient cuz amount of goods being supplied = amount of goods being demanded

results: affordability & profitability

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123
Q

disequilibrium

A

excess supply or excess demand

quantity supply is NOT equal to quantity demand

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124
Q

excess supply

A

if p too high, ppl don’t want it

surplus

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125
Q

excess demand

A

p too low, too many ppl want it & not enough supply

deficit

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126
Q

surplus

A

the amount of an asset/resource that exceeds the portion that is used

demand < supply

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127
Q

deficit

A

the amount by which expenses exceed income -or- costs outstrip revenues

supply > demand

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128
Q

microeconomics

A

individual (persons/businesses/entities)

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129
Q

macroeconomics

A

whole economies

all microeconomies interact - whole of microec interactions

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130
Q

demanders & suppliers

A

consumers & producers

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131
Q

demand schedule

A

this kind of chart can track the willingness & ability of consumers to purchase products @ variable prices

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132
Q

demand curve

A

represents what the demand for a commodity would be if its price ranged anywhere from zero to infinity

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133
Q

supply curve

A

graphic representation of the relationship b/w product price & quantity of a product that a seller is willing & able to supply

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134
Q

always on vertical axis

A

price

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135
Q

always on the horizontal axis

A

quanity (demanded/supplied)

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136
Q

price elasticity of demand

A

a measure of the responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a good to a change in its price

the range/margin of fluctuation of price for a product before demand is affected

% chage in demand / % change in price

<1 = inelastic, >1 = elastic

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137
Q

price ceiling

A

the point where demand starts too fall (price too high)

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138
Q

price floor

A

the point where price can go no lower before no profit

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139
Q

staple products

A

consumers tend to buy these necessities regardless of significant price changes

grocery - milk, bread, meats

household - gas, water, energy

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140
Q

gourmet food

A

often inelastic

may require an increase/decrease of 50% to create any perceptible changes in consumers’ behavior

these types of consumers not as value-concious as regular shoppers

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141
Q

unitary elasticity

A

in economics, situation where a change in 1 factor causes an equal/proportional change in another factor

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142
Q

economy by scale

A

the greater the quantity of a good produced, the lower the per-unit fixed cost because these costs r shared over a larger # of goods

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143
Q

price gouging

A

when someone raises the price of a g/s cuz they know it’s otherwise nonexistent/rare

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144
Q

4 levels of industry

A

raw material extraction

manufacturing

distribution

retail

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145
Q

raw material extraction

A

getting the basic material from which a product is made

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146
Q

manufacturing

A

process of taking raw material & finishing it into a product

sometimes multistage

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147
Q

distribution

A

trucks, planes, trains

refrigerated/armored trucks

allocating finished products to their retail destinations

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148
Q

retail

A

product meets consumer

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149
Q

bulk purchasing

A

retailers buy in bulk w/ discount rate & add their own cost (Costco, BJ’s, etc.)

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150
Q

allocation

A

the distribution of resources to where they need to go

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151
Q

cottage industry

A

qualitative

can do every stage urself

master craftspeople

smaller demographic but loyal

often labor-intensive

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152
Q

labor-intensive

A

more humans than machines

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153
Q

mass production

A

quantitative

uses “specialized” workers on an assembly line

capital-intensive

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154
Q

capital-intensive

A

low cost, high revenue

machines > humans

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155
Q

vertical monolopy

A

dominates 2+ levels of industry

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156
Q

horizontal monopoly

A

dominates 1 level of industry

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157
Q

4 factors of production

A

land

labor

capital

management

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158
Q

land

A

space to produce

literal/figurative

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159
Q

literal land

A

farmers, industrail

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160
Q

figurative land

A

laboratory acces, cyberspace

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161
Q

labor

A

manufacturing

quantitative/qualitative

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162
Q

capital

A

liquidating assets

fuel 4 production

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163
Q

management

A

hiring other managers (efficient & loyal, responsible 4 success)

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164
Q

what 2 categories r combined?

A

4 factors of production & 4 levels of industry

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165
Q

standard of living

A

the level of wealth, comfort, material goods, & necessities available to a certain socioeconomic class in a certain geographic area

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166
Q

inflation

A

a rise in the average price of goods & services in the macroeconomy

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167
Q

deflation

A

reduction of the general level of prices in macroeconomy

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168
Q

GDP

A

Gross Domestic Product

the total dollar value of all final products (g/s) [avoid double-counting] produced in 1 country in 1 year

measures spending to measure well-being

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169
Q

nominal GDP

A

literal count

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170
Q

real GDP

A

deflated & more realistic since previous year’s inflation factored out

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171
Q

GDP per capita

A

average amount produced per person in a country

(GDP/pop)

used 2 measure well-being per person

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172
Q

GDP categories (expenditure approaches)

A

personal consumption

business investment

trade (imports/exports)

gov’t expenditures

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173
Q

personal consumption

A

largest category in most market & mixed economies

US has largest

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174
Q

business investment/expenditures

A

growth spending - buying land/rights

measures the improvement costs encountered by companies in a nation in a year

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175
Q

trade (imports/exports)

A

Imports > Exports = deficit

Imports < Exports = surplus

US has had trade deficit since early 1970s

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176
Q

gov’t expenditures

A

most of all the gov’ts income is generated by tax revenue

40% of world’s defense spending

mostly Health & Human services & Social Security → socialist stuff in capitalist country

2nd largest GDP category

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177
Q

GDP flaws

A

can’t always accurately measure standard of living w/ GDP/capita

doesn’t consider built-in quality of products (cottage industry stuff), GDP/capita, leisure time, household work, how goods r distributed

not all countries can pay for their own census or count

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178
Q

leisure time

A

time not working

can be therapeutic or just bad

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179
Q

importance of household work

A

organization must be regular or ability to work will be affected

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180
Q

how does the GDP not always accurately measures the standard of living?

A

if 2 countries have the same area, pop, or GDP, may have drastically diff geography that may affec their spending

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181
Q

economic styles

A

socialism

communism

capitalism

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182
Q

socialism

A

state can (& usually does) own industry & capital, altho private ownership allowed too

students encouraged to get good edu to get better careers

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183
Q

communism

A

collective socialism

“state” owns all industry & capital

“state” prohibits private property

“state” prohibits classism (gov’t is upper class)

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184
Q

capitalism

A

profit-seeking

based on private ownership

Am’s have made search for profit into a moral, ethical code

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185
Q

profit

A

occurs when the amount of revenue gained from a business activity exceeds the expenses, costs, & taxes needed

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186
Q

determinants of demand

A

income

substitute products

complementary products

time period(attitude)

limited liability

unlimited liability

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187
Q

substitute products

A

uncommonly purchased products r on sale or commonly purchased ones r out of stock

replaces a predictable purchase w/ a more fortuitous one

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188
Q

complementary products

A

accompanies (@ least in thought) the purchase of another

demand for these may fall if associated products r out of stock/discontinued

Ex: pb & j, mac & cheese, french fries & ketchup

189
Q

income (determinant)

A

limits or expands ur purchase power

190
Q

time period (attitude)

A
  1. yearly traditions - holidays & vacations
  2. unplanned events - recession, convict escape

rationalizes the unique/ideal nature of the moment/occasion

191
Q

limited liability

A

concept that shareholders of a business r responsible only 4 its debts up 2 the amount they invest in the business

if corporation goes bankrupt/sued, the stockholders’ other assets can’t be used to pay the debts of the business

192
Q

unlimited liability

A

the concept that a stockholder’s personal assets can be used 2 pay bills of the business

193
Q

fractional reserve banking

A

a banking system in which only a fraction of bank deposits r backed by actual cash-on-hand & r available for withdrawal

this is done to expand the economy by freeing up capital that can be loaned out to other parties

194
Q

multiple expansions of bank deposits

A

modern version of fractional reserve banking

195
Q

M1

A

coins & currency + checkbook $

basic money supply

current = $2.2 trillion

196
Q

M2

A

M1 + savings accounts

$11 trillion

197
Q

M3

A

M2 + large long term deposits (have safety deposits so u can’t take $ out)

198
Q

obj’s used as money before metals

A

salt, stone, glass beads, human skulls

199
Q

date & place for 1st known standard currency

A

7th century BCE (600’s)

Lydia, Anatolian Peninsula, Asia Minor (now Turkey)

200
Q

4 characteristics of money

A

scarce (in demand)

easily divisible (gold = soft)

portable (goldsmiths let ppl deposit & borrow gold)

indestructable

201
Q

what 2 characteristics did gold supply?

A

scarce & easily divisible

202
Q

who were the first bankers

A

goldsmiths frequently used receipts to make loans & gather interest from repayment

203
Q

how were US dollars gradually sep-ed from gold?

A

1929 - Stock Market Crash

1930’s - “Gold Reserve Act” - illegal to use gold as currency

1971 - Nixon cut gold link for good

204
Q

what is the US dollar backed by today?

A

bank assets & faith in our gov’ts promise of the value of our dollar

205
Q

economic thinking

A

the wide use of available resources

206
Q

needs & wants

A

necessities & luxuries

207
Q

scarcity

A

the world is finite, limited

availability of resources tht r in demand = scarce

main prob of economics

208
Q

opp. cost

A

short/long term neg effects of a decision

value lost

209
Q

opp. benefit

A

short/long term pos effects of a decision

value gained

210
Q

economic theorem

A

if needs & wants r unlimited & resources r limited, then the wise use of available resources = necessary for success

211
Q

goods & services

A

an action/product exchanged for value intended to satisfy ur needs & wants

value determined by price determined by econ system being studied

212
Q

money/currency

A

medium of exchange that everyone agrees on the value of

213
Q

assets

A

things of value (gives advantage in survival & social)

capital/abstract

214
Q

capital assets

A

cash or things worth cash

215
Q

abstract assets

A

poise, charisma

216
Q

expenditures

A

payment of cash or cash-equivalent for goods or services

217
Q

globe

A

a scale model of the earth

not as detailed

218
Q

map

A

a symbolic representation of all or part of the planet on a flat piece of paper

detailed

purpose of a map usually dictates which projection is used

219
Q

distortion

A

when curves of a globe become straight lines on a map

distortion of size, shape, distance

220
Q

planar/azimuthal projection

A

often used for maps of the Poles

221
Q

cylindrical projection

A

based on the projection of the globe onto a cylinder

most accurate near Equator

shapes & distances distorted near Poles

222
Q

conic projection

A

placing cone over part of globe

best for showing limited east-west areas tht rn’t too far from Equator

can indicate distances & directions fairly accurately

223
Q

projection

A

drawing of the Earth on a flat surface

224
Q

Winkel Triple/Geographic Projection

A

good balance b/w size & shape of land areas as shown on map - even polar areas have little distortion of size and shape

adapted by National Geographic Society in 1998

most general reference world maps, classrooms

certainly most accurate flat surface map for all 3 categories of distortion

225
Q

Robinson Projection

A

popular classroom map

slightly more distorted than Winkel Tripel

distance slightly distorted

226
Q

Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection

A

“orange peel wrap”

perfect size & shape

distance extremely distorted

used for comparing continental sizes & shapes (effects of erosion, how they were once connected, etc.)

227
Q

Mercator Projection

A

poles stretched 360o - distorts the Poles the most

shape, distance quite true in Tropics

useful for sea travel

228
Q

plotting

A

by estimation or placement

229
Q

key

A

a list that explains what the symbols on a map stand for

230
Q

compass rose

A

shows cardinal directions

231
Q

cardinal directions

A

north, south, east, west

232
Q

intermediate directions

A

northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest

233
Q

great circle

A

an imaginary line that follows the curve of the Earh

important diff b/w globes & maps → cuz globes r round, accurately show great circle route but on map, looks longer

234
Q

great circle route

A

traveling along a great circle

most efficient path for global travel

235
Q

continents

A

Asia, Africa, North & South Am, Europe, Antarctica, Australia

236
Q

oceans

A

4 major bodies of salt water tht surround the continents

Pacific(largest), Atlantic, Indian, Arctic

abt 97% of earth’s water

237
Q

seas

A

Andaman Sea
Arabian Sea
Baltic Sea
Bering Sea
Black Sea
Caribbean Sea
East China Sea
Gulf of Mexico
Hudson Bay
Mediterranean Sea
Red Sea
Sea of Japan
Sea of Okhotsk
South China Sea

238
Q

major rivers

A

Amazon

Nile

Yangtze

Danube

Ganges

Mekong

Zambezi

Volga

Mississippi

Sepik

239
Q

delta

A

flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstream by a river & deposited @ its mouth

240
Q

downstream

A

direction in which a river/stream flows from the source to its mouth

241
Q

river

A

large natural stream of water that runs thru the land

242
Q

grid system

A

pattern formed as the lines of latitude & longitude cross one another

243
Q

Equator

A

0o latitude

imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway b/w the North & South Poles

used as starting pt to measure degrees of north & south latitudes

244
Q

Poles

A

latitudes 90N & 90S

6 months, 1 Pole tilted toward sun & receives continuous sunlight, while the other receives little to no sunlight (March 20-Sep.23rd)

245
Q

meridian

A

one of many lines on the global grid running from the North Pole to the South Pole, used to measure degrees of longitude

360o total

246
Q

Prime Meridian

A

line of the global grid running from the North Pole to the South Pole at Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England;

starting pt for measuring degrees of east/west long

0o long

247
Q

why is Prime Meridian in England?

A

they held a conference & decided it

were in power then

248
Q

International Date Line

A

day begins there

countries can choose what time zone they’re in

180o long (not east or west)

249
Q

parallel

A

1 of many lines on the global grid that circles the earth nrth/sth of the Equator

used 2 measure degrees of lat

180o total

250
Q

global grid

A

every place has a global address

251
Q

cartographers

A

mapmakers

252
Q

hemispheres & quadrants

A

4 hemispheres (N, S, E, W)

4 quadrants (NE, SE, SW, NW)

we r in NW

africa in all 4 except (SW)

253
Q

hydrosphere

A

the watery areas of the earth, including oceans, lakes, rivers, & other bodies of water

abt 70% of our planet’s surface is water

254
Q

lithosphere

A

surface land areas of the earth’s crust, including continents & ocean basins

abt 30% of the earth’s surface is land

255
Q

atmosphere

A

a layer of gases that surround the earth

256
Q

mantle

A

thick middle layer of the earth’s interior structure, consisting of hot, dense rock

silicon, aluminum, iron, chromium, nickel, cobalt, magnesium, oxygen, and other elements

continually rises, cools, sinks, warms up, & rises again, releasing 80% of the heat generated from the earth’s interior

pressure from core = so hot that it causes the mantle to circulate & causes crust to relieve pressure by breaking up plates

257
Q

magma

A

molten rock that is pushed up from the eath’s mantle

258
Q

subduction

A

a process by which mountains & faults can form as sea plates (usually the larger of the plates) dive beneath continental plates; sea plate becomes molten material & as magma, bursts thru the crust to form volcanic mtns

really big pressure underneath from core

Andes & Rockies

most violent

259
Q

accretion

A

a slow process in which a sea plate slides under a continental plate, creating debris that can cause continents to grow outward

grinding, pressing (less than subduction) from mantle surges

levels off seamounts & piles up the resulting debris in trenches

faults, ripple ranges, trenches

San Andreas Fault, western California; ripple ranges in Rockies

260
Q

spreading

A

a process by which new land is created when sea plates pull apart & magma wells up b/w the plates

undersea volcanic mtns/ridges(North Atlantic Ridge[Marians Trench]), rifts, trenches

occurs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean’s floor, pushing Europe & North Am away from each other

261
Q

fold

A

a bend in layers of rock, sometimes caused by plate movement

262
Q

fault

A

a crack/break in the earth’s crust

occurs when the folded land can’t be bent any further

usually not exposed

San Andreas Fault, California

263
Q

landform

A

any geological feature, such as a mtn/valley

natural features of the earth’s surface

264
Q

topography

A

study of landforms & diff’s b/w elevation

265
Q

erosion

A

wearing away of the earth’s surface by wind, flowing water, or glaciers

constant movement of wind, water, & ice that changes the shape of topography

needs time & pressure

wind & water can work together to create caves

266
Q

loess

A

fine, yellowish-brown topsoil made up of particles of silt & clay, usually carried by the wind

China’s Yellow River Basin

267
Q

moraine

A

piles of rocky debris left by melting glaciers

some form long ridges of land, others form dams that create glacial lakes

268
Q

water cycle

A

regular movement of water from ocean to air to ground & back to the ocean

also groundwater (absorption, aquifers)

can be kept from water cycle by humans - even if we return it, we still change it elementally

269
Q

evaporation

A

process of converting into vapor

from oceans/lakes/streams

caused by sun’s heat

warm = more

cold = less

270
Q

condensation

A

the process of excess water vapor changing into liquid water when warm air cools

clouds, fog

271
Q

precipitation

A

moisture tht falls to the earth as rain, sleet, hail, or snow

272
Q

desalination

A

the removal of salt from seawater to make it usable for drinking & farming

expensive

have to need it and be rich (Saudi Arabia)

273
Q

groundwater

A

water w/in the earth that supplies wells & springs

freshwater which lies beneath the earth’s surface

comes from rain & melted snow that filters thru the soil & from water that seeps into the ground from lakes & rivers

274
Q

aquifer

A

underground water-bearing layers of porous rock, sand, or gravel

can be used for wells

freshwater

formed by gravity & path of least resistence; and time & pressure

275
Q

terrestrial

A

of, relating to, or composed of land

276
Q

tectonic plate

A

the 2 sub-layers of the earth’s crust that move, float, & sometimes fracture & whose interaction causes continental drift, earthquakes, volcanoes, mtns, & oceanic trenches

drift as a reaction to mantle movement

277
Q

plate tectonics

A

theory of global tectonics in whicht the lithosphere is divided into a # of crustal plates, each of which moves on the plastic asthenosphere more or less independently to collide w/, slide under, or move past adjacent plates

entire menu of subterranean activity (earthquakes, subduction, etc.)

278
Q

meteorology

A

the study of weather & weather forecasting

279
Q

place

A

a particular space w/ physical & human meaning

answers “what is like there?”

280
Q

regions

A

places united by specific characteristics

281
Q

movement

A

ppl, goods, & ideas travel to other places & create diffusion

282
Q

location

A

a specific place on Earth

answers “where is it?”

283
Q

ecosystem

A

the complex community of interdependent living things in a given environment

284
Q

GIS

A

geographic information systems

comp tools for processing & organizing details & satellite images w/ other pieces of info

used to cross-reference diff themes of data

most common = GPS

285
Q

formal region

A

a region defined by a common characteristic, such as production of a product

organized by identifiable commonalities

286
Q

functional region

A

a central point & the surrounding territory linked to it

organized by central & connected surrounding areas

287
Q

perceptual region

A

a region defined by images, feelings, & ideas rather than by objective data

288
Q

invasive species

A

an alien species whose introduction does/is likely to cause econ/environ harm/harm to human health

“alien species” means, w/ respect to a particular ecosystem, any species tht is not native to that ecosytem

only a few likely to survive

289
Q

continental drift

A

the theory tht the continents were once joined & then slowly drifted apart

Pangea broke apart into smaller continents which in turn drifted and, in some places, recombined

290
Q

continental shelf

A

the part of a continent that extends underwater

narrow in some places & wide in others

291
Q

continental slope

A

a steep slope separating a continental shelf & a deep ocean basin

292
Q

absolute location

A

exact location of a place on the earth described by global coordinates

the exact position of a place on the earth’s surface

293
Q

relative location

A

location in relation to other places

Ex: “in southern Alaska”

294
Q

human-environmental interaction

A

the study of the interrelationship b/w ppl & their physical envrion

where Delaware Bay meets Christina River - looks diff than it used to;the bridge made it work diff-ly cuz ppl on both sides could access each side

295
Q

planets

A

My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Nine Planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, (Pluto)

296
Q

terrestrial planets

A

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars

have solid, rocky crusts

warmer, smaller

297
Q

gaseous planets

A

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

colder, much more gaseous & less dense than the terrestrial planets, even tho they’re larger in diameter

each is itself like a miniature solar system w/ orbiting moons & thin, encircling rings

298
Q

AU

A

Astronomical Unit

93 million mi / 150 million km

299
Q

why has Mars been chosen by NASA as the best prospect for exploration?

A

may once have harbored life; similar atmosphere to earth; water; easier to land on; relatively cool

300
Q

what conditions must humans create in space travel for sustained life?

A

temperatures w/in a limited range, liquid water, atmosphere w/ some (but not too much) oxygen, food sources w/ carbs, protein, & certain minerals, a magnetic shield to block UV rays, ability to grow food (greenhouse - enclosed space, sunlight, water cycle), gravity, leisure space

301
Q

erosion of river bends

A

turn of rivers usually eroded & exposed, widening over time

loess

302
Q

water erosion

A

fast-moving water = most significant cause of erosion

beings when springwater & runwater flow off the land downhill in streams; cuts into land

resulting sediment = sandpaper, grinding away the surface of rocks along the stream’s path

over time, forms gully, then a V-shaped valley, & sometimes canyons

coastal cliffs, beaches, sinkholes

303
Q

wind erosion

A

movement of dust, sand, & soil from 1 place to another

plants help protect but in dry places where ppl have cut down trees & plants, winds pick up large amounts of soil & blow it away

Great Plains in central US during 1930s –> dust storms (droughts, deserts)

beneftis: dust carried often forms large deposits of mineral-rich soil

304
Q

glacial erosion

A

great weight of glaciers causes them to move slowly downhill/spread outward

pick up rocks & soil in their paths

change the landscape, destroying forests, carving out valleys, altering the courses of rivers, wearing down mtntops, long ridges of land, dams, glacial lakes, moraines

305
Q

based on earth’s current tectonic plate movements, what topographical changes would u expect to see in the distant future?

A

more land in North Atlantic, California’s coast line separated & narrower cuz of San Andreas Fault

wind & water erosion consistnetly help out mountains (Appalachians) erode down, while others continue to grow

India changes shape cuz of INdian Ocean -< monsoons

306
Q

which 4 plates r pulling apart?

A

Eurasian, North Am, South Am, & African

307
Q

what would happen if mantle stopped circulating

A

plate tectonics would cease, so mtns, volcanoes, etc. would stop forming. Eventually, because of erosion & weathering, the earth’s surface would just flatten out

theoretically the plates would fuse, but in reality, the planet would go BOOM

308
Q

what changes in the water cycle must occur in order for droughts to occur?

A

rate of evaporation would increase & rate of precipitation would decrease

change in wind patterns

El Nino/La Nina

309
Q

weathering

A

the process that breaks down rocks on the earth’s surface into smaller pieces

310
Q

physical weathering

A

occurs when large masses of rock r physically broken down into smaller pieces

water seeps into cracks in rock & freeze, expand, rock psits

erosion

311
Q

chemical weathering

A

changes the chem makeup of rocks, transforming their minerals/combining them w/ new elements

water + CO2 easily dissolves certain rocks (limestone)

caves

2 chem reactions encounter each other

312
Q

weather

A

condition of the atmosphere in 1 place during a limited period of time

313
Q

climate

A

the weather patterns that an area typically experiences over a long period of time

314
Q

earth’s axis

A

an imaginary line running from the nrth pole to the sth pole thru the planet’s center

tilted at an angle of abt 23.5o

cuz of this tilt, not all places receive same amount of direct sunlight @ same time

earth rotates on axis every 24 hours

315
Q

temperature

A

the measure of how hot/cold a place is

areas w/ large amounts of direct sunlight = warmer vice versa

316
Q

revolution

A

trip around the sun

takes a few hours more than 365 days to complete one (leap year)

317
Q

seasons

A

caused by earth’s revolutin & tilt which cause changes in the angle & amount of sunlight that reach diff locations on the planet

reversed nrth & sth of Equator

318
Q

equinox

A

around March 21 & Sep. 23rd

sun’s rays fall directly on the Equator

“equal night”

daylight & nighttime hours =

in northernhem, marks beginning of spring & fall

319
Q

Tropic of Cancer

A

23.5oN

northernmost pt on the earth to receive the direct rays of the sun

320
Q

summer solstice

A

June 21, when directy rays hit Tropic of Cancer

marks beginning of summer in northrn hemisphere

longest day of sunlight

321
Q

Tropic of Capricorn

A

23.5oS

southernmost lat that gets direct sunlight

322
Q

which plates used to be part of different plates?

A

Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca, Carribean Plates

believed to be created by the same collisions that formed the Andes, etc.

323
Q

winter solstice

A

Dec. 22

day of shortest daylight in Northern Hem

begins winter

when sun’s direct rays hits Tropic of Capricorn

324
Q

greenhouse effect

A

the capacity of certain gases in the atmosphere to trap heat, thereby warming the earth

natural phenomenon necessary for our existence but negative connotation cuz of global warming

325
Q

global warming

A

gradual warming of the earth & its atmosphere tht may be caused in part by pollution & an increase in the greenhouse effect

scientists say tht the increase in temp may have disastrous effects, causing glaciers & ice caps to melt & raising the levels of the world’s oceans - higher water levels could flood coastal cities & submerge smaller islands

326
Q

low latitudes/Tropics

A

b/w the Tropics of Cancer & Capricorn

portions receive the direct rays of the sun yearround

warm-hot climates

47o

327
Q

high latitudes

A

polar areas

above & below Arctic & Antarctic Circles

328
Q

Arctic Circle

A

lat 66.5oN

continuous daylight/twilight from March 20-Sep. 23rd

329
Q

Antarctic Circle

A

66.5oS

continous day/twlight for other 6 months of year

330
Q

mid-latitudes

A

most variable weather

b/w Tropics & Circles

in summer, warm air from Tropics

in winter, cold air from high lats

generally temperate cimate w/ dramatic seasonal weather changes

86o

331
Q

elevation & climate

A

atmosphere thins as altitude increases

thinner air retains less heat

332
Q

wind

A

air moving across the face of the earth

occur cuz the sun heats up the atmosphere & surface unevenly; rising warm air = low pressure & falling cool air = high pressure; cool air replaces warm rising air

distributes heat across planet

333
Q

prevailing winds

A

wind in a region that blows in a fairly constant pattern

direction determiend by lat & affected by earth’s movement

334
Q

trade winds

A

blow from NE toward Equator from abt 30oN & from southeast towards Equator from abt 30oS

in Tropics

335
Q

westerlies

A

prevailing winds in mid-lats

blow diagonally west to east b/w abt 30oN & 60oN and b/w 30oS & 60oS

should actually be called southwesterlies

336
Q

polar easterlies

A

high lats

diagonally east west, pushing cold air toward mid lats

337
Q

doldrums/horse latitudes

A

at Equator, global winds diverted north & south, leaving narrow, generally windless bands called doldrums

2 other narrow bands just north of Tropic of Cancer & just south of Tropic of Capricorn

named horse lats cuz sailors sometimes threw horses off the ship to get out

338
Q

Nor’Easter

A

a storm/wind blowing from the northeast, esp. in New England

huge storm of rain/snow

339
Q

how r winds named?

A

named for direction they come from & from early days of sailing

trade winds = ability to move trading ships thru the region

340
Q

Coriolis Effect

A

cuz Earth rotates to east, global winds displaced clockwise in Northrn Hem & counterclockwise in Southrn Hem

cause prevailing winds to blow diagonally instead of vertically/horizontally

341
Q

ocean current

A

stream of either cold/warm water tht moves in a definite direction thru an ocean

caused by earth’s rotation, changes in air pressure, & diff’s in water temp

also affected by Coriolis effect

cold water from polar -> Equator, warming up as it moves thru Tropics

warm water away from Equator

cold ocean currents cool lands, warm ocean currents bring warmer temps

342
Q

El Niño

A

recurring phenomena

a preiodic reversal of the pattern of ocean currents & water temps in the mid Pacific-region

frequency increased

normally low atmospheric pressure over western Pacifc rises & nromally high pressure over eastern Pac drops; causes trade winds to diminish/reverse direction -> reverses equatorial ocean currents, drawing warm water from near Indonesia eat to Ecuador, where it spreads along Sth Am coast

linked to global warming

called La Nina if little

343
Q

effects of El Nino

A

domino effect

precipitation increases along coasts of Nrth & Sth Am warming winters & increasing risk of floods

Hawaii = less winds & drier weather

Southeast Asia & Australia = drought & occasional massive forest fires

344
Q

landforms & climate

A

large bodies of water = slower to heat & cool than land -> water temps more uniform & constant; helps coastal lands

mtn ranges = influence precipiation & climate; rain shadow

345
Q

rain shadow

A

dry area found on the leeward side of a mtn range

caused by wind blowing over ocean & pushed upward by mtn range; rising air cools & releases moisture; winds warmer & drier as they descend on leeward side

346
Q

windward side

A

facing toward the direction from which the wind is blowing

347
Q

leeward side

A

facing away from the direction from which the wind is blowing

348
Q

natural vegetation

A

the plant life that grows in an area whre the natural environment is unchanged by human activity

indigenous

349
Q

climate regions

A

tropical, dry, mid-lat, high lat, highlands

characterized by soils & natural vegetation

350
Q

tropical climates

A

in/near the low latitudes/Tropics

tropical rain forest/tropical savanna

351
Q

tropical rain forest climates

A

average temp of 80F

warm, humid air

almost daily rain; yearly rainfall averages abt 80in

lush vegetation altho the continual rain tends to leach nutrients from the soil

abundant wildlife

352
Q

tropical rain forest vegetation

A

grows thickly in layers

canopy = tall teak/mahogany trees over shorter rees & bushes

forest floor = vines & shadeloving plants

largest forest = in Amazon River basin, South Am

353
Q

tropical savanna climates

A

dry winters & wet summers

high year-round temps

in dry season, ground = covered w/ clumps of coarse grass. fewer trees than rain forests

354
Q

dry climates

A

desert, steppe

355
Q

desert climates

A

dry areas w/ sparse plant life

yearly rainfall rarely exceeds 10in

temps vary widely from day-night & season-season

occur in just under 1/3 of earth’s total land area; Sahara = over almost the entire northern 1/3 of Africa

scattered shrub & cactus, plants tht tolerate low humidity & wide temp ranges

sometimes oasis

some deserts have dunes/rocky surfaces; others have fertile soil tht can yield crops thru irrigation

356
Q

oasis

A

a lush area of vegetation in an otherwise dry climate

fed by groundwater

357
Q

steppe climates

A

often bordering deserts

dry, largely treeless grasslands

yearly rainfall averages 10-21 inches

358
Q

mid-lat climates

A

variable weather patterns & seasonal changes that give rise to a variety of natural vegetation

marine west coast, Mediterranean, humid subtropical, humid continental

359
Q

marine west climate

A

along western coastlines, b/w lats 30 & 60 north & south

oceans winds bring cool summers & damp winters

abundant rainfall

coniferous & deciduous trees

mixed forest typical w/ both kinds of trees

360
Q

coniferous trees

A

Ex: evergreens

cones, needle-shaped leaves, & keep foliage thruout winter

361
Q

deciduous

A

Ex: oak, elm, maple

broad leaves tht change color & drop in autumn

362
Q

chaparral

A

thickets of woody bushes & short trees

363
Q

Mediterranean climate

A

lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea

mild, rainy winters & hot, sunny summers

natural vegetation = chaparral

any coastal mid-lat areas w/ similar climate & vegetation

364
Q

prairies

A

inland grasslands

called savanna in tropical areas

365
Q

humid subtropical climate

A

short, mild winters

nearly year-round rain

wind patterns & high pressure related to nearby oceans keep humidity levels high

prairies & forests of evergreen & deciduous trees

366
Q

humid continental climate

A

some mid-lat regions of the Northern Hem

landforms influence climate more than winds, preciptation, / ocean temps do

don’t experience moderating effect of ocean winds cuz of their northerly continental locations

the farther south, the longer & more severe the snowy winters & the shorter & cooler the summers

vegetation = similar to marine west coast areas, with evergreens outnumbering deciduous trees in the northernmost areas of the region

367
Q

northerly continental

A

inland

368
Q

high lat climates

A

freezing temps common

amount & variety of vegetation limited

subarctic & tundra & ice cap

369
Q

subarctic climate

A

just south of Arctic Circle

winters bitterly cold & summers short & cool

world’s widest temp ranges

in parts, only a thin layer of surface soil thaws each summer; below is permafrost

brief summer growing seasons = everreens

370
Q

permafrost

A

permantently frozen subsoil

371
Q

tundra climate

A

closer to polar regions

very cold

winter darkness & bitter cold last for 1/2 year & sun’s indirect rays bring constant summer light but little heat

layer of thawed soil even thinner than in subarctic

trees can’t establish roots so vegetation = low bushes, very short grasses, mosses, & lichens

372
Q

ice cap regions

A

constantly covered by more than 2 miles thick snow & ice

lichens only vegetations tht can survive here

monthly temp’s average below freezing

373
Q

highlands climates

A

elevation can determine a climate region, regardless of lat

higher elevation = cooler temps

natural vegetation also varies w/ elevation

mixed forests generally @ bases of mtn ranges

higher up, meadows w/ small trees, shrubs, & wildflowers line mtnsides

374
Q

climatic changes

A

scientists study the interrelationships among ocean temps, greenhouse gases, wind patterns, & cloud cover

during last 1-2 million years, earth passed thru 4 ice ages

375
Q

ice ages

A

eras when glaciers covered large areas of the planet’s surface

376
Q

hypothesis for ice ages

A

the earth absorbed less solar energy cuz of variations in the sun’s output of energy/cuz of variations in the earth’s orbit

dust clouds from volcanic activity reflected sunlight back into space, cooling the atmosphere & lowering surface temps

377
Q

human effects on climate

A

acid rain can destroy forests; fewer forests = climatic change

smog

dams & river diversions, intended to supply water to dry areas, may cause new areas to flood/dry out & affect climate over time

378
Q

acid rain

A

burning fossil fuels releases gases tht mix w/ water in the air, forming acids tht fall in rain & snow

eats away @ the surfaces of buildings, kills fish, & can even destroy entire forests

379
Q

smog

A

a visible chemical haze in the atmosphere that endangers ppl’s health

exhaust released from burning fossil fuels in cars & factories is heated in the atmosphere by the sun’s ultraviolet rays

380
Q

accessibility

A

how easily gotten is a resource?

resources available vs. #ppl/mi2

381
Q

population distribution map

A

shows were ppl live & where the densest populations are

382
Q

superfamily/language family

A

is to language structure as a clan is to family structure

large groups of languages having similar roots

383
Q

Indo-European superfamily

A

Latin(romance) -> Spanish, French, Italian

Germanic -> Swedish, German, English

Slavic

384
Q

language

A

dynamic & ever-changing

key element in cultural development - communicates info & experiences & passes on cultural values & traditions

385
Q

manners of diffusion

A

migration/forced migration (enslaved AA’s)

gov’ts, wars, persecution, famine

positive factors: climate, economy, religious/political freedoms

trade

army migrating

386
Q

Why is the global population growing so rapidly?

A

birthrates have not declined as fast as death rates

387
Q

death rate

A

the number of deaths per year for every 1,000 ppl

388
Q

birthrate

A

he number of births per year for every 1,000 ppl

389
Q

demography

A

study of populations

390
Q

natural increase/growth rate

A

of a population

birthrate - death rate

391
Q

zero population growth

A

birthrate and death rate are equal

392
Q

doubling time

A

number of years it takes a population to double in size

reduced to only 25 years in some part of Asia, Africa, and Latin America; average doubling time of a wealthy industrialized country can be more than 300 years

393
Q

challenges of population growth

A

difficulty of producing enough food

shortages of water, housing, and clothing

uneven distribution of age: lots of infants & young children who can’t contribute to food production

394
Q

how has technology gotten btr for population?

A

fertilizers improve crop yields

irrigation systems help increase amount of land available for farming

new varieties of plants (wheat & rice) created to withstand severe conditions & yield more food

395
Q

negative population growth

A

the annual death rate exceeds annual birthrate

econ consequences just as serious as high growth rates

diffclt to find enough workers

often must be recruted from other countries = tensions b/w “host” pop & newcomers

396
Q

population distribution

A

pattern of human settlement

uneven

related to earth’s geography -almost everyone on Earth lives on a little less than 1/3 of it; fertile soil, water, & climate w/out harsh extremes

Europe & Asia most densely populated

397
Q

metropolitan areas

A

cities & their surrounding urbanized areas

398
Q

population density

A

average # of ppl living on a square mile/square km of land

total pop of a country / total land area (or land that can be used to support the population)

cuz average, doesn’t account for uneven population distribution w/in a country

399
Q

migration

A

movement of ppl from place to place

400
Q

urbanization

A

the resulting overpopulation of city populations brought about by migration and the changes that come with this increase in population

competition for resources up -> morals down, crime up, literacy down, disease up, sanitation down, drug abuse up, life exptectancy down

401
Q

causes of urbanization

A

desire of rural ppl to find jobs & a better life in more prosperous urban areas

402
Q

refugee

A

person who flees to another country to escape persecution or disaster

403
Q

dialect

A

a local form of a language tht differs from the main language

diff’s: pronunciation & meaning of words

404
Q

religion

A

source of conflict

helps find sense of identity

influences daily life: practice of moral values, celebrations

shaped painting, sculpture, architecture, music & dance

Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam

405
Q

social system

A

every culture includes a social system in which the members of the society fall into various smaller groups

develops to help members of a culture work together to meet basic needs

in all cultures family = most important group

also social classes

ethnic groups

406
Q

social classes

A

groups of ppl ranked according to ancestry, wealth, education, or other criteria

407
Q

ethnic group

A

made up of ppl who share a common language, history, place of origin, encestry(genetics), or combo of these elements

408
Q

culture region

A

division of the earth based on a variety of factors, including gov’t, social groups, economic systems, language, or religion

409
Q

cultural diffusion

A

the spread of new knowledge & skills from 1 culture to another

blend of cultures

everchanging

ur absence changes where u come from

410
Q

agricultural revolution

A

nomads gathering food ⇒ farmers producing food

411
Q

nomads

A

groups of herders who had no fixed home but who moved from place to place in search of food, water, & grazing land

412
Q

civilizations

A

highly organized city-based societies with an advanced knowledge of farming, trade, gov’t, art, & science

413
Q

culture hearths

A

centers where cultures developed & from which ideas & traditions spread outward

Nile Valley, Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, Yellow River Valley - all from farming settlements in areas w/ mild climate & fertile land & located near major river/source of water

414
Q

Mesopotamia

A

“land b/w 2 river” -> Tigris/Euphrates Rivers

modern day Iraq

5,500 years ago

415
Q

Nile River Valley

A

5,11 years ago

Egypt

416
Q

Indus River Valley

A

4,500 years ago

Pakistan

417
Q

Yellow River Valley

A

3500 years ago

China

418
Q

eutrophication

A

the over-enrichment of a body of water from industrial & human use

over feds the algae -> oxygen sucking, & organisms inside die

type of pollution

419
Q

specialization & civilization

A

surplus food - less need for everyone to farm; able to develop other ways of making a living; new tech, metalworking, shipbuilding(long-distance trade)

wealth from trade -> rise of cities & complex social systems

420
Q

industrial revolution

A

1700s & 1800s

some countries began to industrialize, using power-driven machines & factories to mass-produce goods

econ changes - goods could be produced quickly & cheaply

social changes - ppl left farms, cities larger; harsh working & living conditions

421
Q

information revolution

A

end of 1900s

computers made it possible to store huge amounts of info & send info all over world in an instant, linking cultures

422
Q

natural resource

A

substance from the earth that is not made by ppl but can be used by them for food, fuel, or other necessities

renewable/nonreweable

423
Q

renewable resources

A

cannot be used up or can be replaced naturally or grown again in a relatively short amount of time

Ex: wind, sun, water, forests, & animal life

424
Q

nonrenewable resources

A

can’t be replaced

minerals & fossil fuels

425
Q

conservation

A

immediate goal = to manage vital resources carefully so that ppl’s present needs r met

long-term goal = ensure tht the needs of future generations r met

environmental experts have encouraged ppl to replace their dependence on fossil fuels w/ the use of renewable energy sources

426
Q

hydroelectric power

A

a renewable energy source generated from falling water

427
Q

solar energy

A

power produced by the sun’s heat

requires large, expensive equipment, so not yet an economical alternative to other energy sources

428
Q

nuclear power

A

electricity created by nuclear energy, the power made by creating a controlled atomic reaction

produces dangerous waste products

429
Q

economic development

A

most natural resources not evenly distributed throughout earth

affects the global economy, so countries specialize in the econ activiites best suited 2 their resources

4 types of activites: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

430
Q

primary economic activities

A

involve taking/using natural resources directly form earth

farming, grazing, fishing, forestry, & mining

take place near the natural resources being used - coal mining occurs @ site of coal deposit

431
Q

secondary economic activities

A

use raw materials to produce something new & more valuable

manufacturing automobiles, assembling electronic goods, producing electric power, or making pottery

occur close to the resource/close to the market for the finished good

432
Q

tertiary economic activities

A

don’t involve directly acquiring & remaking natural resources - instead provide services to ppl & businesses

doctors, teachers, lawyers, truckers, & store clerks –> all professiona, wholesale, or retail services

433
Q

quaternary economic activities

A

concerned w/ processing, management, & distribution of info

vitally important to modern economies tht have been transformed in recent years by comp revolution

“white collar” professionals working in educations, gov’t, business, info processing, & research

434
Q

developed countries

A

econ activites help influence a country’s level of development

country tht has a great deal of technology & manufacturing

US

most ppl work in manufacutring/service industries & enjoy a high standard of living

farmers in these countries engage in commercial farming, raising crops & livestock to sell in the market; cuz of modern techniques, only small percentage of these countries’ workers is needed to grow feed to feed entire populations

435
Q

developing countries

A

countries working toward greater manufacturing & technology

mainly in Africa, Asia, & Latin America

agriculture remains dominant - despite much commercial farming, most farmers inthese countries engage in subsistence farming so most ppl in these countries = poor

436
Q

subsistence farming

A

growing only enough food for family needs

437
Q

industrialization

A

transition from an agricultural society to one based on industry

has transormed once largely agricultural countries

Ex: China & Malysia

438
Q

downside of developing countries

A

global influence of develope(ed?) countries has sparked resentment in some developing countries

militant groups have tried to strike back by engaging in terrorism - small in size & often limited in resources, these groups seek to use the fear unleashed by violence to heighten their influence to promote change

439
Q

terrorism

A

the use of violence to create fear in a given population

440
Q

world trade

A

unequal distribution of natural resources promotes a complex network of trade among countries

countries export their specialized products, trading them to other countries tht can’t produce those goods

when countries can’t produce as much as they need of a good, they import it. that country, in turn, may buy the first country’s products, making the 2 countries trading partners

441
Q

multinational companies

A

major stimulus to world trade

a firm tht does business in many places thruout the world

usually headquartered in a developed country & often locate their manufacturing/assembly operations in developing countries w/ low labor costs

442
Q

barriers to trade

A

gov’t tries to manage its country’s trade to benefit its own economy :

some add a tariff to the price of goods tht r imported which influences ppl to buy products made in their home country

might put a strict quota, or # limit, on the quantity of a particular product tht can be imported from a particular country

may even impose embargo

443
Q

embargo

A

bans trade w/ another country altogether as a way to punish that country for political/economic diff’s

444
Q

free trade

A

the removal of trade barriers so that goods can flow freely b/w countries

GATT

around world, several countries have joined together to create regional free trade agreements NAFTA

445
Q

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT)

A

first international agreement to promote free trade

in 1995 became World Trade Organization (WTO), to which most countries now belong

446
Q

NAFTA

A

North American Free Trade Agreement

elimintes all trade barriers to 1 another’s goods

447
Q

EU

A

European Union

largest trading bloc

includes many of the countries of Europe

many members have adopted a regional currency, the euro, to extend their cooperative efforts

448
Q

pollution

A

the existence of impure, unclean, or poisonous substances in the air, water, or land

449
Q

water pollution

A

Earth’s bodies of water r normally renewable, purifying themselves over time, but this natural cycle can be interrupted by human activity

tankers & offshore rigs can cause oil spills

industries may dump chemical waste tht enters & pollutes the water supply

feritlizers & pesticides from farms can seep into groundwater & cause harm, as can animal waste & untreated sewage

450
Q

land pollution

A

occurs where chemical waste poisons fertile topsoil or solid waste is dumped in landfills

radioactive waste from nuclear power plants & toxic runoff from chemical processing plants can also leak into the soil & cause contamination

451
Q

air pollution

A

main source = burning of fossil fuels by industries & vehicles

burning fuel gives off poisonous gases tht can seriously damage ppl’s health

acidic chemicals in air pollution combine w/ precipitation to form acid rain

452
Q

alluvial soil

A

a fine-grained fertile soil deposited by water flowing over flood plains or in river beds

accelerates erosion, creating deltas

the sediments cause the water to flow aroud them, creating a triangle shape(delta)

453
Q

tidal river

A

river near ocean

a river whose flow and level is influenced by tides

when @ low tide, sediments blown away by wind or carried by water to farmland

454
Q

path of least resistance

A

No matter where the river, it will take the path of least resistance and flow downhill as rapidly as possible.

455
Q

belt

A

A geographic region that is distinctive in a specific respect

Delaware is in chemical & credit card belt

456
Q

degrees of polar climate

A

47

prevailing winds = northeasterlies & southeasterlies

457
Q

degrees of northern temperate climate

A

43

458
Q

biosphere

A

can be found in lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere

the part of the earth where life exists

459
Q

erosion of river bends

A

turn of rivers usually eroded & exposed, widening over time

460
Q

what causes a place to be cold

A

high elevation & high latitude

461
Q

hurricane

A

huge churning storm @ sea

low pressure air pockets over Iowa, Nebraska, etc. dont hold water; high pressure gulf storm air clouds join w/ it & they dance

462
Q

Hurricane scale name

A

Saffir-Simpson Scale

463
Q

Category 1 Hurricane

A

weak

75-96 mph

niminal damage to vegetation(broken branches, stems broken)

464
Q

Category 4 Hurricane

A

very strong

131-155 mph

extreme structural damage

New Orleans

similar to F2 tornado

465
Q

Category 5 Hurricane

A

devastating

> 155 mph

catastrophic building failures possible

Philippines: 190 mph highest ever

similar to F3 tornado

466
Q

tornado

A

a very local whirling storm

doesn’t need water

a violent storm with winds whirling around a small area of extremely low pressure, usually characterized by a dark funnel-shaped cloud causing damage along its path

land based whirling dervish

467
Q

Tornado Scale Name

A

Fujita Tornado Scale

468
Q

F4 Tornado

A

Devastating

207-260mph

Well-consturcted houses leveled; structures w/ weak foundations blown off some distance; cars thrown & large missiles generated

469
Q

F5 Tornado

A

Finger of God

261-318mph

Strong frame houses lifted & carried; auto-sized missiles; trees gone; steel-reinforced structures badly damaged

destroys anything it touches

ISS (14 decks)

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