Geo Basics Flashcards
location
a specific place on the Earth
answers “where is it?”
grid system
pattern formed as the lines of latitude and longitude cross one another
Equator
0o latitude
imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway b/w the North & South Poles
used as the starting pt to measure degrees of north & sth latitudes
Poles
latitudes 90N and 90S
6 months, 1 Pole tilted toward sun & receives continuous sunlight, while the other receives little-no sunlight
meridian
one of many lines on the global grid running from the Nrth Pole 2 the Sth Ple, used to msure degrees of longitude
360o total
Prime Meridian
line of the global grid running from the North Pole to the South Pole at Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England; starting pt for measuring degrees of east/west long
0o longitude
Global Grid
every place has a global address (abstract location)
more preise than degrees
60 units called minutes
globe
a scale model of the earth
not as detailed
map
a symbolic representiaon of all or part of the planet on a flat piece of paper
detailed
purpose of a map usually dictates which projection is used
cartographers
mapmakers
use math formulas to transfer info from the 3D globe to a 2D map
distortion
when curves of a globe become straight lines on a map
distortion of size, shape, distance, or area occurs
planar/azimuthal projection
often used for maps of the Poles
great circle routes
traveling along a great circle
most efficient path for global travel
great circle
an imaginary line that follows the curve of the Earth
important difference between globes and maps ⇒ cuz globes r round, accurately shows great circle route but on map, looks longer
cylindrical projection
based on the projection of the globe onto a cylinder.
most accurate near Equator
shapes & distances distorted near Poles
conic projection
placing cone over part of globe
best for showing limited east-west areas that r not too far from the Equator
can indicate distances & directions fairly accurately
Portoguese
1400’s recorded longitude & latitude for sea travel using muslim technology
dead reckoning
the process of calculating one’s position, esp. at sea, by estimating the direction and distance traveled rather than by using landmarks, astronomical observations, or electronic navigation methods.
the process of calculating one’s current position by using a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon known or estimated speeds over elapsed time, and course.
why is the Prime Meridian in England?
they held a conference & decidied it. were in power then.
International Date Line
day begins there
countries can choose what time zone they’re in
180o longitude (not east or west)
how many hemispheres? quadrants? names?
4 hemispheres (N, S, E, W)
4 quadrants (NE, SE, SW, NW)
we r in NW
Africa = all 4 (except not in SW)
parallel
1 of many lines on the global grid tht circles the earth nrth/sth of the Equator; used 2 measure degrees of lat
180o total
coordinates
statistical
absolute location
exact location of a place on the earth described by global coordinates
the exact position of a place on the earth’s surface
Ex: Mt. McKinley is located at 63o N, 151o W
basin
area of land drained by a given river and its branches
area of land surrounded by lands of higher elevations
bay
part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline, generally smaller than a gulf
hydrosphere
the watery areas of the earth, including oceans, lakes, rivers, and other bodies of water
abt 70% of our planet’s surface is water
lithosphere
surface land areas of the earth’s crust, including continents and ocean basins
abt 30% of the earth’s surface is land
atmosphere
a layer of gases that surrounds the earth
mantle
thick middle layer of the earth’s interior structure, consisting of hot, dense rock
silicon, aluminium, iron, chromium, nickel, cobalt, magnesium, oxygen, and other elements
continually rises, cools, sinks, warms up, & rises again, releasing 80% of the heat generated from the earth’s interior
pressure from core = so hot tht it causes the matnle to circulate & causes crust to relieve pressure by breaking up plates (or seismic farting)
magma
molten rock that is pushed up from the earth’s mantle
subduction
a process by which mountains & faults can form as sea plates (usually the larger of the plates) dive beneath continental plates; sea plate becomes molten material & as magma, bursts thru the crust to form volcanic mountains
really big pressure underneath from core
Andes & Rockies
most violent
accretion
a slow process in which a sea plate slides under a continental plate, creating debris that can cause continents to grow outward
grinding, pressing (less than subduction) from mantle surges
levels off seamounts and piles up the resulting debris in trenches
faults, ripple ranges, trenches
San Andreas Falt, western California; ripple ranges in Rockies
spreading
a process by which new land is created when sea plates pull apart and magma wells up between the plates
undersea volcanic mountains or ridges(North Atlantic Ridge (Marianas Trench)), rifts, trenches
occurs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean’s floor, pushing Europe & North America away from each other
fold
a bend in layers of rock, sometimes caused by plate movement
fault
a crack or break in the earth’s crust
occurs when the folded land can’t be bent any further
usually not exposed
San Andreas Fault in California
landform
Any geological feature, such as a mountain or valley.
natural features of the earth’s surface
topography
a detailed graphic representation of the surface features of a place or object.
study of landforms & diff’s b/w elevation
weathering
the process that breaks down rocks on the earth’s surface into smaller pieces
erosion
wearing away of the earth’s surface by wind, flowing water, or glaciers
constant movement of wind, water, & ice that changes the shape of topography
needs time & pressure
wind & water can work together to create caves
loess
fine, yellowish-brown topsoil made up of particles of silt and clay, usually carried by the wind
China’s Yellow River basin
moraine
piles of rocky debris left by melting glaciers
some form long ridges of land, others form dams that create glacial lakes
water cycle
regular movement of water from ocean to air to ground and back to the ocean
also groundwater (absorption, aquifers)
can be kept from water cycle by humans, even if we return it we change it elementally
evaporation
process of converting into vapor
from ocean/lakes/streams
caused by sun’s heat
warm = more water vapor
cold = less water vapor
condensation
the process of excess water vapor changing into liquid water when warm air cools
clouds
precipitation
moisture that falls to the earth as rain, sleet, hail, or snow
desalination
the removal of salt from seawater to make it usable for drinking and farming
expensive
groundwater
water within the earth that supplies wells and springs
freshwater which lies beneath the earth’s surface
comes from rain & melted snow tht filter thru the soil & from water that seeps into the ground from lakes & rivers
aquifer
underground water-bearing layers of porous rock, sand, or gravel
can be used for wells
freshwater
formed by gravity & path of least resistence; and time & pressure
terrestrial
Of, relating to, or composed of land.
tectonic plate
the two sub-layers of the earth’s crust (lithosphere) that move, float, and sometimes fracture and whose interaction causes continental drift, earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and oceanic trenches
drift as a reaction to mantle movement
plate tectonics
a theory of global tectonics in which the lithosphere is divided into a number of crustal plates, each of which moves on the plastic asthenosphere more or less independently to collide with, slide under, or move past adjacent plates
caused by the heat rising from the earth’s core which create slow-moving currents within the mantle
entire menu of subterranean activity (earthquakes, subduction, etc.)
meteorology
the study of weather and weather forecasting
cartography
the science of mapmaking
place
a particular space with physical and human meaning
answers “What is it like there?”
regions
places united by specific characteristics
movement
ppl, goods, & ideas travel to other places & create diffusion
ecosystem
the complex community of interdepent living things in a given environment
GIS
geographic information systems
computer tools for processing and organizing details and satellite images with other pieces of information
used to cross-reference diff themes of data
most common = GPS
formal region
a region defined by a common characteristic, such as production of a product
organized by identifiable commonalities
functional region
a central point and the surrounding territory linked to it
organized by central & connected surounding areas
perceptual region
a region defined by images, feelings, & ideas rather than by objective data
Delaware = 1st State, Diamond State, Blue Hen State, Small Wonder
invasive species
An alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health
‘Alien species’ means, with respect to a particular ecosystem, any species that is not native to that ecosystem.
only a few likely to survive
continental drift
the theory that the continents were once joined and then slowly drifted apart
Pangea broke apart into smaller continents which in turn drifted and, in some places, recombined
continental shelf
the part of a continent that extends underwater
narrow in some places & wide in others
continental slope
a steep slope separating a continental shelf and a deep ocean basin.
relative location
location in relation to other places
Ex: “in southern Alaska”
human-environment interaction
the study of the interrelationship between people and their physical environment
where Delaware Bay meets Christina River - looks diff than it used to; the bridge made it work differently cuz ppl on both sides could access each side
globe
most accurate map of Earth
properties of distortion
size
shape
distance
projection
drawing of Earth on a flat surface
Winkel Tripel/Geographic Projection
good balance between size and shape of land areas as shown on map
even polar areas have little distortion of size and shape
adapted by National Geographic Society in 1998
most general reference world maps, classrooms
certainly most accurate flat surface map for all 3 categories of distortion
Robinson Projection
popular classroom map
slightly more distorted than Winkel Tripel
distance slightly distorted
Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection
“orange peel wrap”
perfect size & shape
distance extremely distorted
used for comparing continental sizes and shapes (effects of erosion, how they were once connected, etc.)
Mercator Projection
poles stretched 360o - distorts the Poles the most
shape, distance quite true in Tropics
useful for sea travel
settling
when houses/buildings sink into the land they’re on
difference between lava and magma
lava = exposed
magma = underground
which plates used to be part of different plates?
Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca, Carribean Plates
believed to be created by the same collisions that formed the Andes, etc.
ripple ranges
caused by accretion, but not as big as subduction mountains
Sierras, Cascades
3 largest subduction scars
Himalayas, Andes, Rockies
Pre-Pangea
possible cuz scars from before Pangea still exist (Appalachians, Ural Mountains, Balkans
why would ppl live in California even though they know lots of earthquakes happen there?
opportunity benefit > opp cost
Naples - on top of Pompeii. ash makes soil very fertile (wine)
Florida - sinkholes increasing, but good for old people
sinkhole
aggressiv settling
Fcanal
man-made river canceling 2 bodies of water
light maps
tell population density, technology, and wealth of countries
megalopolis
interconnected series of metropolitan cities
Boswash
supercluster
a cluster of galaxies which themselves occur as clusters.
plotting
by estimation or placement
boundary lines
highlight the borders between different countries, states, or countries
key
a list that explains what the symbols on a map stand for
compass rose
shows cardinal directions
cardinal directions
north, south, east, and west
usually indicated with arrows or points of a star
intermediate directions
northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest
scale
shows the relationship between map measurements and actual distances
a consistent, proportional relationship between the measurement shown on the map and the measurment of the earth’s surface
varies with the size of the area shown
the farther away, the smaller the scale
small-scale maps
large area but little detail
elarge-scale maps
small area on the earth’s surface with a great amount of detail
general-purpose maps
maps that show a wide range of information about an area
physical maps
show the location and topography of the earth’s physical features
use colors or patterns to indicate relief
some have conotour lines
show mountains, rivers, streams, etc.
relief
changes in elevation over a given area of land
contour lines
lines that connect all points of land of equal elevation
political map
shows the boundaries between countries
smaller internal divisions (states/counties) can also be indicated by diff symbols
often show human-made features (capitals, cities, roads, railroads)
special-purpose map
maps that emphasize a single idea or a particular kind of info abt an area
economic activity map
used to study the distribution of natural resources
used by governments and industry leaders to monitor the economic activites of countries and regions
graph
visual presentation of info
line graph
shows changes in 2 variables, or changing sets of circumstances, over periods of time
bar graph
shows differences by comparison
circle graph/pie chart
shows the relationship of parts to a whole
cross referencing
basically using a grid system (like in charts/tables)
chart/table
data is arranged in columns and rows
display facts in an organized manner and make comparison easy
diagram
a drawing that shows what something is or how something is done
dynamic
largest plate
Pacific Plate
plates pulling away from the north/south american plates
Eurasian, African
creating North Atlantic Ridge?
physical weathering
occurs when large masses of rock r physically broken down into smaller pieces
water seeps into cracks in a rock & freezes, expands, rock splits
erosion
chemical weathering
changes the chemical makeup of rocks, transforming their minerals/combining them w/ new elements
water + CO2 easily dissolves certain rocks(limestone)
caves
2 chem reactions encounter each other
weather
condition of the atmosphere in 1 place during a limited period of time
Earth
misshapen orb wider at its belt
tilts, revolutions, rotations
rotates east
wobbling
caused by intense pressure from Sun and core
geographers
specialists who describe the earth’s physical and human features and the interactions of people, places, and environments
spacial relations
refer to the links that places and people have to one another because of their locations
what geographers consider
the world in spatial terms (location)
places and regions
physical systems
human systems
environment and society
the uses of geography
physical systems
how certain natural phenomena, such as volcanoes, hurricanes, and floods, shape the earth’s surface
places and regions
understand and explain how places are similar to and different from one another
human systems
how people shape the world - how they settle the earth, form societies, and create permanent features
environment and society
the ways people use their environment, how and why they have changed it, and what consequences result from these changes
uses of geography
provide insight into how physical features and living things developed in the past
can also interpret present-day trends to plan for future needs
physical geography
focuses on the study of the earth’s physical features
looks at climate, land, water, plants, and animal life in terms of their relationships to one another and to humans
human/cultural geography
the study of human activites and their relationship to the cultural and physical environments
concentrates on political, economic, and cultural factors, such as population density, urban development, economic production, and ethnicity
historical geography
the study of places and human activites over time and the various geographic factors that have shaped them
direct observation
visit region to gather specific info abt region & its geo features
employ remote sensing, using aerial photographs & satellite images
mapping method
taking complicated pieces of info abt an area and presenting them in a more understandable form on a map
allow a visual comparison between places and regions
interviewing
find out how people think/feel abt certain places
examine the ways in which ppl’s beliefs & attitudes have led to changes in the physical environment
talk to a carefully chosen sample whose answers represent the whole group
statistics
some info used is numerical
use comp’s to organize this info & present it in clear, understandable ways
analyze the data to find patterns and trends
longest and shortest days of the year
solstices
relationship b/w moon and earth
the moon has its own gravitational field ⇒ the interaction between the two fields causes fluctuation in our ocean tides
tropics
47o
doldrums/horse latitudes
at Equator, global winds diverted north & south, leaving narrow, generally windless band called doldrums
2 other narrow bands just north of Tropic of Cancer & just south of Tropic of Capricorn
named horse lats cuz sailors sometimes threw horses off ships to get out
Nor’easter
a storm or wind blowing from the northeast, esp. in New England.
huge storm of rain/snow when
how are winds named?
named for direction they come from & from early days of sailing
trade winds = ability to move trading ships thru the region
gulf stream
keeps us warm in winter & then
extension = North Atlantic Drift, warm water, flows near western Europe & makes warmer
which current moves along the northwestern coast of africa?
canary & guinea
technology
depend on advanced technological tools, such as satellites & computers
GIS
cartographers rely on computers and comp software. each type of data on a map is kept as a separate “layer” in the map’s digital files
satellites
orbiting the earth
carry remote sensors, high-tech cameras, and radar tht gather data & images related to the earth’s environment, weather, human settlement patterns, and vegetation
history & government
geographers use history to help them understand what places looked like in the past
study political science to help them see how ppl in diff places r governed. look @ how political boundaries have formed & changed. interested in how the natural envron has influenced political decisions & how gov’ts change natural environ’s.
culture
human geographers use the tools of sociology & anthropology to understand the culture of societies thruout the world.
study the relationships between the phys environ & social structures.
the way of life of a group of ppl who share similar beliefs & customs
also seek 2 understand how the activities of diff groups affect their physical environ’s & how the environ affects culture groups differently
economics
geographers use economics 2 help them understand how the locations of resources affect the way ppl make, transport, & use goods, & how & where services r provided
interested in how locations r chosen 4 various econ activities (i.e. farming, mining, manufacturing, & seeling)
interdependence of ppl’s econ activities thruout the world
physical geographer
studies Earth’s features & the geographic forces shaping them
forecasting weather, tracing causes & effects of pollution, conserving wilderness areas
human geographer
analyzes human aspects of culture - population, language, ethnicity, religion, government
developing cultural policies for international organization, such as the United Nations
economic geographer
examines human economic activities and their relationship to the environment
urban planning, focusing on the location of industries or transportation routes
regional geographer
studies geographic features of a particular place or region
assisting government and business in making decisions related to a region
environmental specialist
focuses on the two-way interaction b/w humans & the phys environ
advising gov’t & business on ways of protecting the environment
geographic educator
teaches abt geography
teaching geography at all educational levels; serving as consultant to business & government
Sun
a star
abt 109x wider than Earth, 93 million miles away
enormous mass creates a strong pull of gravity
star
ball of burning gases
planets
My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Nine Planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
terrestrial planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
have solid, rocky crusts
warmer, smaller
gas giant planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
colder, much more gaseous & less dense than the terrestrial planets, even tho they’re larger in diameter
each is itself like a miniature solar system w/ orbiting moons & thin, encircling rings
asteroids
small, irregularly shaped, planetlike objects
found mainly in asteroid belt
asteroid belt
region b/w orbits of Mars & Jupiter
comets
made of icy dust particles & frozen gases
look like bright balls w/ long, feathery tails
orbits inclined @ every possible angle 2 the earth’s orbit
may approahc from any direction
meteoroids
pieces of space debris - chunks of rock & iron
when occasionaly enter Earth’s gravitational field, friction usuall burns them up before they reach the earth’s ruface
those tht collide w/ Earth = meteorites
highest point on Earth
Mount Everest, South Asia
lowest dry land point
Dead Sea, Southwest Asia
deepest known depression
Mariana Trench, under Pacific Ocean southwest of Guam
inner core
super-hot but solid
abt 4,000 mi below surface of Earth
iron & nickel under enormous pressure
outer core
liquid
abt 1,400 miles thick & abt 1,800 miles below surface
band of melted iron & nickel
crust
rocky shell forming the earth’s surface
relatively thin layer, ranges from abt 2 miles-75 miles thick
broken into 12+ plates
plates
great slabs of rock that float on a partially melted layer in the upper mantle
carry the earth’s oceans & continents
Pangea
a gigantic supercontinent abt 500 million years ago
all of the continents together
seamounts
underwater mountains w/ steep sides & sharp peaks
converge
New land also created this way where 2 sea plates converge
one plate moves under the other, forming an island chain @ the boundary
earthquake
sudden, violent movements of plates along a fault line
often occur where diff plates meet 1 another. tension builds along fault lines & strain eventually snaps & shifts the rocks.
Ring of Fire
a zone of earthquake & volcanic activity surrounding the Pacific Ocean
marks boundary where the plates that cradle the Pacific meet the plates that hold the continents surrounding the Pacific
volcanoes
mountains formed by lava/by magma that breaks thru the earth’s crust
often rise along plate boundaries where 1 plate plunges beneath another; in such a process the rocky plate melts as it dives down into mantle; if the molten rock = too thick, its flow is blocked & pressure; cloud of ash & gas may then spew, creating a funnel thru which the magma rushes to the surface; lava may eventually form a large volcanic cone topped by a crater
also arise in areas away from plate boundaries; some areas deep in earth r hotter than other, & magma often blasts thru the surface as volcanoes; as a moving plate passes over these hot spots, molten rock flowing out of the surface may create volcanic island chains; Ex: Hawaiian Islands in Pacific Ocean
hot springs/geysers
at various hot spots, molten rock may heat underground water, causing hot springs/geysers
wind erosion
movement of dust, sand, & soil from 1 place to another
plants help protect but in dry places where ppl have cut down trees & plants, winds pick up large amounts of soil and blow it away; Great Plains in central US during 1930s -> dust storms (droughts - deserts)
benefits: dust carried often forms large deposits of mineral-rich soil
glacial erosion
great weight of glaciers causes them to move slowly downhill/spread outward
pick up rocks & soil in their paths
change the landscape, destroying forests, carving out valleys, altering the courses of rivers, wearing down mountaintops, long ridges of land, dams, glacial lakes, morains
glaciers
large bodies of ice tht slowly move across the earth’s surface
form over long period of time as layers of snow press together & turn to ice
when cooling trend, glaciers carry debris elsewhere; when warming trend, ice recedes but debris stays
sheet glaciers
flat, broad sheets of ice
cover most of Greenland & all of Antarctica
advance a few ft each winter & recede during summer
large blocks often break off & become icebergs
mountain glaciers
more common
located in high mtn valleys where the climate is cold(Rocky Mtns & Cascade Range of North America)
as thy move dwnhl, mtn glcrs gouge out round, U-shaped vlys
water erosion
fast-moving water = most signficant cause of erosion
begins when sprngwtr & rnwtr flow off the land dwnhl in streams; cuts into land
resulting sediment = sandpaper, grinding away the surface of rocks along the stream’s path
over time, forms gully then a V-shaped valley & sometimes canyons
oceans erode coastal cliffs, wear rocks into sandy beaches, & move sand to othr costal areas, caves, sinkholes
Columbian Exchange
the transfer of plants, animals, & diseases b/w Europe & the Americas that began w/ the voyages of Columbus
how do invasive species arrive in new environments?
accidentally - as seeds/eggs/tiny insects hidden in packing materials/food/soil/ballast water; w/out natural predators can spread quickly
intentionally - insect to combat crop pest; wheat good; bad, rabbits in Australia
oceans
4 major bodies of salt water tht surrounds the continents
abt 97% of earth’s water
Pacific(largest), Atlantic, Indian, Arctic
canyon
deep & narrow valley w/ steep walls
cape
point of land that extends into a river, lake, or ocean
channel
wide strait/waterway b/w 2 landmasses tht lie close to each other; deep part of a river/other waterway
cliff
steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice
continent
one of the 7 large landmasses on the earth
Asia, Africa, North Am, South Am, Antarctica, Europe, Australia
delta
flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstream by a river & deposited @ its mouth
divide
stretch of high land tht separates river systems
downstream
direction in which a river/stream flows from the source to its mouth
elevation
height of land above sea level
gulf
part of a large body of water tht extends into a shoreline, generally larger & more deeply indented than a bay
harbor
a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can anchor safely
highland
elevated land area such as a hill, mtn, or plateau
hill
elevated land w/ sloping sides & rounded summit; generally smaller than a mtn
island
land area, smaller than a continent, completely surrounded by water
isthmus
narrow stretch of land connecting 2 larger land areas
lake
a sizable inland body of water
latitude
distance nrth/sth of the Equator, measured in degrees
grid lines that measure North/South
longitude
dist east/west of the Prime Meridian, measured in degrees
grid lines that measure East/West
lowland
land, usually level, at a low elevation
mesa
broad, flat-topped landform w/ steep sides; smaller than a plateau
mountain
land w/ steep sides tht rises sharply (1,000 ft/more) from surrounding land; gneerally larger & more rugged than a hill
mtn peak
pointed top of a mtn
mtn range
a series of connected mtns
mouth
(of a river)
place where a stream/river flows into a larger body of water
ocean current
stream of either cold/warm water tht moves in a definite direction thru an ocean
caused by earth’s rotation, changes in air pressure, & diff’s in water temp
Coriolis effect also
cold water from polar -> Equator, warming up as it moves thru Tropics
warm water away from Equator
cold ocean currents cool lands, warm ocean currents bring warmer temps
peninsula
body of land jutting into a lake/ocean, surrounded on 3 sides by water
physical feature
characteristics of a place occurring naturally, such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, or resource
plain
area of level land, usually @ low elevation & often covered w/ grasses
plateau
area of flat/rolling land @ a high elevation, abt 300-3,000 ft(90-900 m) high
river
large natural stream of water tht runs thru the land
sea
large body of water completely/partly surrounded by land
Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic
seacoast
land lying next to a sea/an ocean
sound
broad inland body of water, often b/w a coastline & 1+ islands off the coast
source
(of a river)
place where a river/stream begins, often in highlands
strait
narrow stretch of water joining 2 larger bodies of water
tributary
small river/stream tht flows into a large river/stream; a branch of the river
upstream
direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the source of a river/stream
valley
area of land usually b/w hills/mtns
clmate
the weather patterns tht an area typically experiences over a long period of time
earth’s axis
an imaginary line running from the nrth pole to the sth pole thru the planet’s center
tilted at an angle of abt 23.5o
cuz of this tilt, not all places receive same amount of direct sunlight @ same time
earth rotates on axis every 24 hours
temperature
the measure of how hot/cold a place is
areas w/ large amounts of direct sunlight = warmer vice versa
revolution
trip around the sun
takes few hours more than 365 days to complete one
seasons
caused by earth’s revolution & tilt which cause changes in the angle & amount of sunlight that reach diff locations on the planet
reversed nrth & sth of the Equator
equinox
around March 21 & Sep. 23rd
sun’s rays fall directly on the Equator
“equal night”
daylight & nighttime hours =
in northern hem, marks beginning of spring & fall
Tropic of Cancer
23.5oN
northernmost pt on the earth to receive the direct rays of the sun
summer solstice
June 21, when direct rays hit Tropic of Cancer
marks beginning of summer in nrthrn hem
longest day of sunlight
Tropic of Capricorn
southernmost latitude that gets direct sunlight
23.5oS
winter solstice
Dec. 22
day of shortest daylight in Nrthrn Hem
beginning of winter
greenhouse effect
the capacity of certain gases in the atmosphere to trap heat, thereby warming the earth
natural phenomenon necessary for our existence but negative connotation cuz of global warming
global warming
gradual warming of the earth & its atmosphere tht may be caused in part by pollution & an increase in the greenhouse effect
scientists say that the increase in temp may have disastrous effects, causing glaciers & ice caps to melt & raising the level of the world’s oceans - higher water levels could flood coastal cities & submerge smaller islands
low latitudes/Tropics
b/w the Tropics of Cancer & Capricorn
portions receive the direct rays of the sun yearround
warm-hot climates
high latitudes
polar areas
above & below Arctic & Antarctic Circles
Arctic Circle
lat 66.5oN
continuous daylight/twilight from March 20-Sep. 23rd
Antarctic Circle
66.5oS
continuous day/twilight for other 6 months of year
mid-latitudes
most variable weather
b/w Tropics & Circles
in summer, warm air from Tropics
in winter, cold air from high lats
generally temperate climate w/ drmaatic seasonal weather changes
elevation & climate
atmosphere thins as altitude increases; thinner air retains less heat
wind
air moving across the face of the earth
occur because the sun heats up the atmos & surface unevenly; rising warm air = low pressure & falling cool air = high pressure; cool air replaces warm rising air;
distributes heat across planet
prevailing winds
wind in a region tht blows in a fairly constant patter
direction determined by latitude & affected by earth’s movement
Coriolis effect
cuz Earth rotates to east, globabl winds displaced clockwise in Northrn Hem & counterclkwise in Southrn Hem
cause prevailing winds to blow diagonally instead of vertically/horizontally
trade winds
blow from NE toward Equator from abt 30oN & from southest toward Equator from abt 30oS
westerlies
prevailing winds in the mid-lats, blowing diagonally west to east b/w abt 30oN & 60oN & b/w 30oS & 60oS
actually should be called southwesterlies
polar easterlies
high lats
diagonally east west, pushing cold air toward mid lats
El Niño
recurring phenomena
a periodic reversal of the pattern of ocean currents & water temps in the mid Pacific-region
frequency increased
normall low atmospheric pressure over western Pacific rises & normall high pressure over eastern Pac drops; causes trade winds to diminish/reverse direction -> reverses equatorial ocean currents, drawing warm water from near Indonesia east o Ecaudor, where it spreads along Sth Am coast
linked to global warming
called La Nina if little
effects of El Nino
domino effect
precipitation increases along coasts of Nrth & Sth Am warming winters & increasing risk of floods
Hawaii = less winds & drier weather
Southeast Asia & Australia = drought & occasional massive forest fires
landforms & climate
large bodies of water = slower to heat & cool than land -> water temps more uniform & constant; helps coastal lands
mtn ranges = influence precipitation & climate; rain shadow
windward side
facing toward the direction from which the wind is blowing
leeward side
facing away from the direction from which the wind is blowing
rain shadow
dry area found on the leeward side of a mtn range
caused by wind blowing over ocean & pushed upward by mtn range; rising air cools & release moisture; winds warmer & drier as descend on leeward side
Hurricane scale name
Saffir-Simpson Scale
Tornado Scale Name
Fujita Tornado Scale
Category 1 Hurricane
weak
75-96 mph
niminal damage to vegetation(broken branches, stems broken)
hurricane
huge churning storm @ sea
A severe tropical cyclone having winds greater than 64 knots (74 miles per hour; 119 kilometers per hour), originating in the equatorial regions of the Atlantic Ocean or Caribbean Sea or eastern regions of the Pacific Ocean, traveling north, northwest, or northeast from its point of origin, and usually involving heavy rains
low pressure air pockets over Iowa, Nebraska, etc. dont hold water; high pressure gulf storm air clouds join w/ it & they dance
tornado
a very local whirling storm
doesn’t need water
a violent storm with winds whirling around a small area of extremely low pressure, usually characterized by a dark funnel-shaped cloud causing damage along its path
land based whirling dervish
Category 4 Hurricane
very strong
131-155 mph
extreme structural damage
New Orleans
similar to F2 tornado
Category 5 Hurricane
devastating
> 155 mph
catastrophic building failures possible
Philippines: 190 mph highest ever
similar to F3 tornado
F4 Tornado
Devastating
207-260mph
Well-consturcted houses leveled; structures w/ weak foundations blown off some distance; cars thrown & large missiles generated
F5 Tornado
Finger of God
261-318mph
Strong frame houses lifted & carried; auto-sized missiles; trees gone; steel-reinforced structures badly damaged
destroys anything it touches
Joplin tornado
F5
through Oklahama, Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, mostly in Joplin, Missouri
1 mi swath of destruction
10+ distance of destruction
natural vegetation
the plant life that grows in an area where the natural environment is unchanged by human activity
indigenous
climate regions
torpical, dry, mid-latitude, high latitude, highlands
characterized by soils & natural vegetation
tropical climates
in/near the low latitudes/Tropics
tropical rain forest/tropical savanna
tropical rain forest climates
average temp of 80F(27C)
warm, humid air
almost daily rain; yearly rainfall averages abt 80in
lush vegetation altho the continual rain tends to leach nutrients from the soil
abundant wildlife
tropical rain forest vegetation
grows thickly in layers
canopy = tall teak/mahogany trees over shorter trees & bushes
forest floor = vines & shadeloving plants
largest forest = in Amazon River basin, South Amrca
tropical savanna climates
dry winters & wet summers
high year-round temps
in dry season, ground = covered w/ clumps of coarse grass. fewer trees than rain forests.
dry climates
desert, steppe
desert climates
dry areas w/ sparse plant life
yearly rainfall rarely exceeds 10in
temps vary widely from day-night & season-season
occur in just under 1/3 of earth’s total land area; Sahara = over almost the entire northn 1/3 of African continent
scattered scrub & cactus, plants that tolerate low humidity & wide temp ranges
sometimes oasis
some deserts havedunes/rocky surfaces; others have fertle soil tht can yield crops thru irrigation
oasis
a lush area of vegetation in an otherwise dry climate
fed by groundwater
steppe climates
often bordering deserts
dry, largely treeless grasslands
yearly rainfall averages 10-21 inches
mid-latitude climates
variable weather patterns & seasonal changes tht give rise to a variety of natural vegetation
marine west coast, Mediterranean, humid subtropical, humid continental
marine west coast climate
along western coastlines, b/w lats 30 & 60 north&south
ocean winds bring cool summers & damp winters
abundant rainfall
coniferous & deciduous trees
mixed forests typical w/ both kinds of trees
coniferous trees
Ex: evergreens
cones, needle-shaped leaves, & keep their foliage thruout the winter
deciduous trees
Ex: oak, elm, maple
broad leaves tht change color & drop in autumn
Mediterranean climate
lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea
mild, rainy winters & hot, sunny summers
natural vegetation = chaparral
any coastal mid-lat areas w/ similar climate & vegetation
humid subtropical climate
short, mild winters
nearly year-round rain
wind patterns & high pressure related to nearby oceans keep humidity levels high
prairies & forests of evergreen & deciduous trees
chaparral
thickets of woody bushes & short trees
prairies
inland grasslands
called savanna in tropical areas
humid continental climate
some mid-lat regions of the Northern Hemisphere
landforms influence climate more than winds, precipitation,/ocean temps do
don’t experience moderating effect of ocean winds cuz of their northerly continental locations
the farther north, the longer & more severe the snowy winters & the shorter & cooler the summers
vegetation = similar to marine west coast areas, with evergreens outnumbering deciduous trees in the northernmost areas of the region
northerly continental
inland
high latitude climates
freezing temps common
amount & variety of vegetation limited
subarctic climate
just south of the Arctic Circle
winters bitterly cold & summers short & cool
world’s widest temp ranges
in parts, only a thin layer of surface soil thaws each summer; below is permafrost
brief summer growing seasons = needled evergreens
permafrost
permanently frozen subsoil
tundra climate
closer to polar regions
very cold
winter darkness & bitter cold last for half the year & sun’s indirect rays bring constant summer light but little heat
layer of thawed soil even thinner than in subarctic
trees can’t establish roots so vegetation = low bushes, very short grasses, mosses, & lichens
ice cap regions
constantly covered by more than 2 miles thick snow & ice
lichens only vegetation tht can survive here
monthly temps average below freezing
highlands climates
elevation can determine a climate region, regardless of lat
higher the elevation, the cooler the temps
natrual vegetation of highlands climates also varies w/ elevation
mixed forests generally @ bases of mtn ranges
higher up, meadows w/ small trees, shrubs, & wildflowers line mtnsides
climatic changes
scientists study the interrelationships among ocean temps, greenhouse gases, wind patterns, & cloud cover
during last 1-2 million years, earth passed thru 4 ice ages
ice ages
eras when glaciers covered large areas of the planet’s surface
hypothesis
scientifc explanation
hypothesis for ice ages
the earth absorbed less solar energy cuz of variations in the sun’s output of energy/cuz of variations in the earth’s orbit
dust clouds from volcanic activity reflected sunlight back into space, cooling the atmosphere & lowering surface temps
human effects on climate
burning fossil fuels releases gases tht mix w/ water in the air, forming acids tht fall in rain & snow; acid rain can destroy forests; fewer forests = climatic change
exhaust released from burning fossil fuels in cars & factories is heated in the atmosphere by the sun’s ultraviolet rays, forming smog
dams & river diversions, intended to supply water to dry areas, may cause new areas to flood/dry out & affect climate over time
smog
a visible chemical haze in the atmosphere that endangers ppl’s health
accessibility
how easily gotten is a resource?
resources available vs. #ppl/mi2
population distribution map
shows were ppl live & where the densest populations are
superfamily/language family
is to language structure as a clan is to family structure
large groups of languages having similar roots
Indo-European superfamily
Latin(romance) -> Spanish, French, Italian
Germanic -> Swedish, German, English
Slavic
language
dynamic & ever-changing
key element in cultural development - communicates info & experiences & passes on cultural values & traditions
manners of diffusion
migration/forced migration (enslaved AA’s)
gov’ts, wars, persecution, famine
positive factors: climate, economy, religious/political freedoms
trade
Why are Germans in a precarious position?
surrounded by French, Danish, Polish, Russian, Serbian, etc. all around
Why is the global population growing so rapidly?
birthrates have not declined as fast as death rates
death rate
the number of deaths per year for every 1,000 ppl
birthrate
the number of births per year for every 1,000 ppl
demography
study of populations
natural increase/growth rate
of a population
difference between an area’s brithrate & its death rate
zero population growth
birthrate and death rate are equal
doubling time
number of years it takes a population to double in size
reduced to only 25 years in some part of Asia, Africa, and Latin America; average doubling time of a wealthy industrialized country can be more than 300 years
challenges of population growth
difficulty of producing enough food
shortages of water, housing, and clothing
uneven distribution of age: lots of infants & young children who can’t contribute to food production
how has technology gotten btr for population?
fertilizers improve crop yields
irrigation systems help increase amount of land available for farming
new varieties of plants (wheat & rice) created to withstand severe conditions & yield more food
negative population growth
the annual death rate exceeds annual birthrate
econ consequences just as serious as high growth rates
diffclt to find enough workers
often must be recruted from other countries = tensions b/w “host” pop & newcomers
population distribution
pattern of human settlement
uneven
related to earth’s geography -almost everyone on Earth lives on a little less than 1/3 of it; fertile soil, water, & climate w/out harsh extremes
Europe & Asia most densely populated
metropolitan areas
cities & their surrounding urbanized areas
population density
average # of ppl living on a square mile/square km of land
total pop of a country / total land area (or land that can be used to support the population)
cuz average, doesn’t account for uneven population distribution w/in a country
migration
movement of ppl from place to place
urbanization
the resulting growth of city populations brought about by migration and the changes that come with this increase in population
causes of urbanization
desire of rural ppl to find jobs & a better life in more prosperous urban areas
refugee
ppl who flee to another country to escape persecution or disaster
dialect
a local form of a language tht differs from the main language
diff’s: pronunciation & meaning of words
religion
source of conflict
helps find sense of identity
influences daily life: practice of moral values, celebrations
shaped painting, sculpture, architecture, music & dance
Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam
social system
every culture includes a social system in which the members of the society fall into various smaller groups
develops to help members of a culture work together to meet basic needs
in all cultures family = most important group
also social classes
ethnic groups
social classes
groups of ppl ranked according to ancestry, wealth, education, or other criteria
ethnic group
made up of ppl who share a common language, history, place of origin, or combo of these elements
government
reflects uniqueness of a society’s culture
each gov’t maintains order w/in the country, provides protection from outisde dangers, & supplies other services to its ppl
organized according to levels of power (nation, regional, & local) & by type of authority (single ruler, small group of leaders, / body of citizens/their representatives)
maintains social order, provides public services, ensures national security, & supports its economic well-being
economic activites
how a culture utilizes its natural resources to meet such human needs as food & shelter
the ways in which ppl produce, obtain, use, & sell goods & services
culture region
division of the earth based on a variety of factors, including gov’t, social groups, economic systems, language, or religion
cultural diffusion
the spread of new knowledge & skills from 1 culture to another
blend of cultures
everchanging
ur absence changes where u come from
agricultural revolution
nomads gathering food ⇒ farmers producing food
nomads
groups of herders who had no fixed home but who moved from place to place in search of food, water, & grazing land
civilizations
highly organized city-based societies with an advanced knowledge of farming, trade, gov’t, art, & science
culture hearths
centers where cultures developed & from which ideas & traditions spread outward
Middle America, Nile Valley, Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, Yellow River Valley - all from farming settlements in areas w/ mild climate & fertile land & located near major river/source of water
specialization & civilization
surplus food - less need for everyone to farm; able to develop other ways of making a living; new tech, metalworking, shipbuilding(long-distance trade)
wealth from trade -> rise of cities & complex social systems
industrial revolution
1700s & 1800s
some countries began to industrialize, using power-driven machines & factories to mass-produce goods
econ changes - goods could be produced quickly & cheaply
social changes - ppl left farms, cities larger; harsh working & living conditions
information revolution
end of 1900s
computers made it possible to store huge amounts of info & send info all over world in an instant, linking cultures
unitary system
a gov’t in which all key powers r given to the national or central gov’t
the central gov’t creates state, provincial, or other local gov’ts & gives them limited sovereignty
United Kingdom, France
federal system
form of gov’t in which powers r divided b/w the national gov’t & the state or provincial gov’t
United States
confederation
loose union of independent territories
US at first
levels of gov’t
unitary
federal
types of gov’t
autocracy
oligarchy
democracy
autocracy
gov’t in which a single individual possesses the power & authority to rule
oldest & 1 of the most common forms of gov’t
most autocrats achieve/maintain their power thru inheritance/ruthless use of military/police power
several forms: absolute/totalitarian, monarchy
absolute/totalitarian dictatorship
decisions of a single leader determine gov’t policies
gov’t can come to power thru revolution/election
dictator seeks to control all aspects of social & economic life
Hitler’s gov’t in Nazi Germany, Benito Mussolini’s rule in Italy, Joseph Stalin’s regime in Soviet Union
gov’t not responsible to the ppl & the ppl have no power to limit their rulers’ actions
monarchy
king/queen exercises the supreme powers of gov’t
usually inherit their positions
absolute/constitutional
absolute monarchy
monarchs have complete & unlimited power to rule their ppl
king of Saudi Arabia
constitutional monarchy
the monarchs share governmental powers w/ elected legislatures or serve as ceremonial leaders
United Kingdom, Sweden, Japan, Jordan, & Thailand
oligarchy
system of gov’t in which a small group holds power
derives power from wealth, military power, social position, sometimes religion, or combo
today gov’ts of communist countries mostly oligarchies - leaders in Communist Party & armed forces control gov’t
China
similarity b/w dictatorships & oligarchies
both claim they rule for the ppl
may try to give appearance of control by ppl - elections w/ 1 candidate or control results in other ways; some type of legislature/national assembly elected by/representing the ppl tht only approve policies & decisions already made by the leaders
usually suppress all political opposition
democracy
any system of gov’t in which leaders rule w/ consent of the citizens
ppl hold sovereign power
direct/representative democracies
direct democracy
the citizens themselves decide on issues
exists in some place @ local levels of gov’t but no national gov’t based on direct democracy
representative democracy
the ppl elect representatives w/ the responsibility & power to make laws & conduct gov’t
assembly of ppl’s representatives may be called council, legislature, congress, / parliament
may be republic
republic
US, France
voters elect all major officials, who r responsible to the ppl
head of state/gov’t is usually prez elected 4 a specific term
United Kingdom is NOT republic - democracy w/ monarch as head of state (role is ceremonial, & elected officials hold the power to rule)
economic systems
all must make 3 basic decisions:
- what & how many goods & services should be produced
- how they should be produced
- who gets the goods & services tht r produced
traditional, market, & command economies
traditional economy
habit & custom determine the rules for all economic activity
individuals not free 2 make decisions based on what they would like to have but instead defined by customs of their elders & ancestors
Ex: tradition in Inuit society of northern Canada tht a successful hunter would share the spoils of the hunt with the other families in village
today exist in very limited parts of the world
market economy
individuals & private groups make decisions abt what to produce
ppl as shoppers choose what products they will/will not buy
businesses make more of what they believe consumers want
based on free enterprise
no country has pure market economy system
free enterprise/capitalism
the idea that private individuals/groups have the right to own property/businesses & make a profit w/ only limited gov’t interference
ppl free to choose what jobs they will do & for whom they will work
mixed economy
US
an economy in which the gov’t supports & regulates enterprise thru decisions that affect the marketplace
the gov’t main economic task is to preserve the free market by keeping competition free & fair & by supporting the public interest
gov’ts also influence their economies by spending tax revenues to support social services such as health care, education, & housing
command economy
economic system in which economic decisions abt production & disribution r made by some central authority
the gov’t owns/directs the means of production - land, labor, capital (machinery, factories), & business managers - & controls the distribution of goods
countries w/ this economy try to distribute goods & services equally among citizens - ex. public taxes r used to support social services
citizens however have no voice in how this tax money is spent
called either socialism/communism
how to tell if a command economy is socialist/communist?
depends onhow much the gov’t is involved
communism
requires strict gov’t control of almost the entire society, including its economy
gov’t decides how much to produce, what to produce, & how to distribute the g&s’s produced
1 political party (Communist Party) makes decisions & may even use various forms of coercion to ensure that the decisions r carried out @ lower political & economic levels
opposition against communism
supporters of market system say tht w/out free decision making & incentives, businesses won’t innovate/produce products tht ppl want
customers will be limited in their choices & economies will stagnate
cuz of this, command economies often decline
Ex: former Soviet Union
so China & Vietnam have allowed some free enterprise to promote economic growth, altho their gov’t tightly control political affairs
socialism
allows even wider range of free enterprise alongside gov’t-run activities
3 main goals:
- equal distribution of wealth & economic opportunity
- society’s control, thru its gov’t, of all major decisions abt production
- public ownerships of most land, factories, & other means of production
democratic socialism
politically some socialist countries, esp in western Europe, r democracies
under this, ppl have basic human rights & elect their political leaders, even tho the gov’t controls certain industries
economy
the way a society produces, distributes, & uses goods & services
natural resource
substance from the earth that is not made by ppl but can be used by them for food, fuel, or other necessities
renewable/nonreweable
renewable resources
cannot be used up or can be replaced naturally or grown again in a relatively short amount of time
Ex: wind, sun, water, forests, & animal life
nonrenewable resources
can’t be replaced
minerals & fossil fuels
conservation
immediate goal = to manage vital resources carefully so that ppl’s present needs r met
long-term goal = ensure tht the needs of future generations r met
environmental experts have encouraged ppl to replace their dependence on fossil fuels w/ the use of renewable energy sources
hydroelectric power
a renewable energy source generated from falling water
solar energy
power produced by the sun’s heat
requires large, expensive equipment, so not yet an economical alternative to other energy sources
nuclear power
electricity created by nuclear energy, the power made by creating a controlled atomic reaction
produces dangerous waste products
economic development
most natural resources not evenly distributed throughout earth
affects the global economy, so countries specialize in the econ activiites best suited 2 their resources
4 types of activites: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
primary economic activities
involve taking/using natural resources directly form earth
farming, grazing, fishing, forestry, & mining
take place near the natural resources being used - coal mining occurs @ site of coal deposit
secondary economic activities
use raw materials to produce something new & more valuable
manufacturing automobiles, assembling electronic goods, producing electric power, or making pottery
occur close to the resource/close to the market for the finished good
tertiary economic activities
don’t involve directly acquiring & remaking natural resources - instead provide services to ppl & businesses
doctors, teachers, lawyers, truckers, & store clerks –> all professiona, wholesale, or retail services
quaternary economic activities
concerned w/ processing, management, & distrubtion of info
vitally important to modern economies tht have been transformed in recent years by comp revolution
“white collar” professionals working in educations, gov’t, business, info processing, & research
developed countries
econ activites help influence a country’s level of development
country tht has a great deal of technology & manufacturing
US
most ppl work in manufacutring/service industries & enjoy a high standard of living
farmers in these countries engage in commercial farming, raising crops & livestock to sell in the market; cuz of modern techniques, only small percentage of these countries’ workers is needed to grow feed to feed entire populations
developing countries
countries working toward greater manufacturing & technology
mainly in Africa, Asia, & Latin America
agriculture remains dominant - despite much commercial farming, most farmers inthese countries engage in subsistence farming so most ppl in these countries = poor
subsistence farming
growing only enough food for family needs
industrialization
transition from an agricultural society to one based on industry
has transormed once largely agricultural countries
Ex: China & Malysia
downside of developing countries
global influence of developing countries has sparked resentment in some developing countries
militant groups have tried to strike back by engaging in terrorism - small in size & often limited in resources, these groups seek to use the fear unleashed by violence to heighten their influence to promote change
terrorism
the use of violence to create fear in a given population
world trade
unequal distribution of natural resources promotes a complex network of trade among countries
countries export their specialized products, trading them to other countries tht can’t produce those goods
when countries can’t produce as much as they need of a good, they import it. that country, in turn, may buy the first country’s products, making the 2 countries trading partners
multinational companies
major stimulus to world trade
a firm tht does business in many places thruout the world
usually headquartered in a developed country & often locate their manufacturing/assembly operations in developing countries w/ low labor costs
barriers to trade
gov’t tries to manage its country’s trade to benefit its own economy :
some add a tariff to the price of goods tht r imported which influences ppl to buy products made in their home country
might put a strict quota, or # limit, on the quantity of a particular product tht can be imported from a particular country
may even impose embargo
embargo
bans trade w/ another country altogether as a way to punish that country for political/economic diff’s
free trade
the removal of trade barriers so that goods can flow freely b/w countries
GATT
around world, several countries have joined together to create regional free trade agreements NAFTA
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT)
first international agreement to promote free trade
in 1995 became World Trade Organization (WTO), to which most countries now belong
NAFTA
North American Free Trade Agreement
elimintes all trade barriers to 1 another’s goods
EU
European Union
largest trading bloc
includes many of the countries of Europe
many members have adopted a regional currency, the euro, to extend their cooperative efforts
pollution
the existence of impure, unclean, or poisonous substances in the air, water, or land
water pollution
Earth’s bodies of water r normally renewable, purifying themselves over time, but this natural cycle can be interrupted by human activity
tankers & offshore rigs can cause oil spills
industries may dump chemical waste tht enters & pollutes the water supply
feritlizers & pesticides from farms can seep into groundwater & cause harm, as can animal waste & untreated sewage
land pollution
occurs where chemical waste poisons fertile topsoil or solid waste is dumped in landfills
radioactive waste from nuclear power plants & toxic runoff from chemical processing plants can also leak into the soil & cause contamination
air pollution
main source = burning of fossil fuels by industries & vehicles
burning fuel gives off poisonous gases tht can seriously damage ppl’s health
acidic chemicals in air pollution combine w/ precipitation to form acid rain
acid rain
eats away @ the surfaces of buildings, kills fish, & can even destroy entire forests
forests
provide animal habitats, prevent soil erosion, & conduct photosynthesis
photosynthesis
the process by which plants take in carbon dioxide and, in the presence of sunlight, produce carbohydrates
the oxygen released during this is vital for human & animal survival
alluvial soil
a fine-grained fertile soil deposited by water flowing over flood plains or in river beds
accelerates erosion, creating deltas
the sediments cause the water to flow aroud them, creating a triangle shape(delta)
tidal river
river near ocean
a river whose flow and level is influenced by tides
when @ low tide, sediments blown away by wind or carried by water to farmland
path of least resistance
No matter where the river, it will take the path of least resistance and flow downhill as rapidly as possible.
who desalinates?
rich & need water
Saudi Arabia
belt
A geographic region that is distinctive in a specific respect
Delaware is in chemical & credit card belt
largest tectonic plate
degrees of tropical climate
47
prevailing winds = trade winds
degrees of temperate climate
86
prevailing winds = westerlies
degrees of polar climate
47
prevailing winds = northeasterlies & southeasterlies
degrees of northern temperate climate
43
biosphere
can be found in lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere
the part of the earth where life exists
ecuador
Western, Northern, Southern hemispheres
SW, NW
AU (Astronomical Unit)
93 million mi / 150 million km
why has Mars been chosen by NASA as the best prospect for exploration?
may once have harbored life; similar atmosphere to earth; water; easier to land on; relatively cool
what conditions must humans create in space travel for sustained life?
temperatures w/in a limited range, liquid water, atmosphere w/ some (but not too much) oxygen, food sources w/ carbs, protein, & certain minerals, a magnetic shield to block UV rays, ability to grow food (greenhouse - enclosed space, sunlight, water cycle), gravity, leisure space
erosion of river bends
turn of rivers usually eroded & exposed, widening over time
based on earth’s current tectonic plate movements, what topographical changes would u expect to see in the distant future?
more land in North Atlantic, California’s coast line separated & narrower cuz of San Andreas Fault
4 plates pulling apart = Eurasian, North Am, South Am, & African
wind & water erosion consistnetly help out mountains (Appalachians) erode down, while others continue to grow
India changes shape cuz of INdian Ocean -< monsoons
what would happen if mantle stopped circulating
plate tectonics would cease, so mtns, volcanoes, etc. would stop forming. Eventually, because of erosion & weathering, the earth’s surface would just flatten out
theoretically the plates would fuse, but in reality, the planet would go BOOM
what changes in the water cycle must occur in order for droughts to occur?
rate of evaporation would increase & rate of precipitation would decrease
change in wind patterns
El Nino/La Nina
contamination of Earth’s sphres
hydrosphere - sediments, sewage, pollution, oil spills
lithosphere - animal waste, excessive use of pesticides, soil depletions, heavy farming, soil compaction
atmosphere - animal waste, dusts, gases, vapours, mists
biosphere - radioactivity
natural selection
only the organisms best adapted to their environment tend to survive and transmit their genetic characteristics in increasing numbers to succeeding generations while those less adapted tend to be eliminated.
what causes a place to be cold
high elevation & high latitude
Judaism
4k recorded; 6-10k legend
origin: Ur, Canaan
current pop: 14.8 million
holy text: torah
class: monotheistic
Hinduism
- 5k recorded; ?? legend
origin: south asia
current pop: 968 million
text: Vedic Texts
class: Polytheistic(ancient), monotheistic(current)
Buddhism
- 5k recorded
origin: West India
current pop: 500 million
text: Sutras(religious prayers)
class: n/a
Christianity
2k +
origin: Mediterranean
pop: 2.34 billion
txt: Bible
class: monotheistic (Holy Trinity)
Islam
- 434k
origin: Arabian Peninsula
pop: 1.57 billion
txt: Koran(Quran)
class: monotheistic
