Midterm Review

Question 1

Logic

Answer 1

The science and art of reasoning well.

Question 2

3 Laws of Thought

Answer 2

1. Law of Excluded Middle - T or F
2. Law of Identity - If T, then T
3. Law of Noncontradiction - Not both T and F

Question 3

Formal Logic

Answer 3

Deals with proper modes of reasoning

Question 4

Informal Logic

Answer 4

Deals with operation of thinking that are indirectly related to reasoning

Question 5

Induction

Answer 5

Reasoning with probability from examples or experience to general rules

Question 6

Deduction

Answer 6

Reasoning with certainty from premises to conclusions

Question 7

Term

Answer 7

A concept expressed precisely in words

Question 8

Definition

Answer 8

A statement that gives the meaning of a term

Question 9

Five Types of Definitions

Answer 9

Lexical definition - from a dictionary
Precising definition - reduces vagueness
Stipulative definition - increases vocabulary
Theoretical definition - explains concepts theoretically
Persuasive definition - influences attitudes

Question 10

Genus and Species

Answer 10

Genus - more broad or general

Species - more specific

Question 11

Extension and Intension

Answer 11

Increasing Extension - becomes more broad
Decreasing Extension - becomes more specific

Increasing Intension - becomes more specific
Decreasing Intension - becomes more broad

Question 12

The Three Methods of Defining

Answer 12

Defining by Synonym - similar words
Defining by Example - give an example (picture, story, object, etc.)
Defining by Genus and Difference - genus is bag, difference is backpack

Question 13

The Rules for Defining by Genus and Difference

Answer 13

A definition should…

1. state the essential attributes of the term
2. not be circular
3. not be too broad or too narrow
4. not be unclear or figurative
5. be stated positively, if possible
6. be of the same part of speech as the term

Question 14

Statement

Answer 14

A sentence that is either true of false

Question 15

Self-Supporting Statements

Answer 15

A statement whose truth value can be determined from the statement itself.

1. Self -reports
2. T of F by logical structure
3. T or F by definition

Question 16

Supported Statements

Answer 16

A statement whose truth value depends on evidence or information from outside itself.

1. authority
2. experience or observation
3. deduction

Question 17

The Four Relationships Between Statements

Answer 17

1. Consistency - both T at the same time
2. Implication - truth of one requires the truth of the other
3. Logical Equivalence - Two statements that imply one another
4. Independence - if T/F of one has nothing to do with T/F of the other

Question 18

The Three Types of Disagreements

Answer 18

1. Real Disagreement - both cannot be T at the same time
2. Apparent Disagreement - differences of opinion or perception
3. Verbal Disagreement - different definitions used for the same word

Question 19

How to Translate a Statement Into Standard Categorical Form

Answer 19

1. Identify the entire subject and write it down
2. Choose the proper “to be” verb (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been)
3. Rewrite the entire predicate as a predicate nominative (i.e., a noun) - throws rocks becomes a rock-thrower

Question 20

The Subject and Predicate of a Statement

Answer 20

Subject - Who or What the sentence is about

Predicate - Describes or asserts something about the subject

Question 21

The Square of Opposition

Answer 21

A diagram of basic relations between categorical statements with the same subject and predicate
A, E, I and O statements
A - All S are P
E - No S are P
I - Some S are P
O - Some S are not P

Question 22

The Relationship Demonstrated by the Square of Opposition:
Contradiction
Contrariety
Sub-Contrariety
Subimplication
Superimplication

Answer 22

Contradiction - Always have opposite truth values
A and O, E and I
Contrariety - Both false, but can’t both be true
A and E
Sub-Contrariety - If both true, but both cannot be false
I and O
Subimplication - Only exists between pairs of A and I statements and E and O statements
Superimplication - Only exists between pairs of I and A statements and O and E statements

Question 23

Argument

Answer 23

Set of statements that appear to implied or supported by the others

Question 24

Conclusion

Answer 24

A statement that appears to be implied by the premises

Question 25

Premise

Answer 25

Statements that support and imply the conclusion

Question 26

Syllogism

Answer 26

A deductive argument with two premises and three terms

Question 27

Categorical Syllogism

Answer 27

Consists of three statements in categorical form

Question 28

Major, Minor, and Middle Term

Answer 28

Major Term - predicate of the conclusion Minor Term - subject of the conclusion Middle Term - Found once in each premise

Question 29

Schema

Answer 29

``` A representation of a syllogism Statements are in standard order with standard abbreviations Example: Some M are P All S are M . ' . Some S are P ```

Question 30

Mood

Answer 30

A three-letter description of the types of categorical statements when arranged in standard order. Example: IAI

Question 31

Figure

Answer 31

A number from 1 to 4 identifying the placement of the middle term

Question 32

Validity

Answer 32

Valid statement if and only if the premise implies the conclusion

Question 33

Soundness

Answer 33

Valid syllogism that has true premises

Question 34

Counterexamples

Answer 34

Syllogism that has a false conclusion to show the original syllogism to be invalid

Question 35

Distribution

Answer 35

A term that refers to all members of it's categories

Question 36

Rules for Validity

Answer 36

Rules 1. In at least on premise the term must be distributed 2. If a term is distributed in its conclusion it must also be distributed in its premise 3. It cannot have two negative premises 4. It cannot have a negative premise and affirmative conclusion 5. It cannot have two affirmative premises and a negative conclusion

Question 37

How to Tell if a Term is Distributed in a Statement

Answer 37

``` S P A D U E D D I U U O U D ```

Question 38

Immediate Inferences

Answer 38

A statement that can be directly inferred from another statement

Question 39

The Complement of a Term

Answer 39

A set of all terms not included in the given term. | Thus, the term P is non-P

Question 40

Enthymemes

Answer 40

An argument in which a statement is unstated and assumed. It is a syllogism with one assumed statement.

Question 41

Hypothetical Syllogisms

Answer 41

A statement that affirms an outcome based on a condition. It has the form If P then Q.

Question 42

Modus Ponens

Answer 42

P >Q P . ' . Q

Question 43

Modus Tollens

Answer 43

P > Q ~Q . ' . ~P

Question 44

Affirming the Consequent

Answer 44

P > Q Q . ' . P

Question 45

Denying the Antecedent

Answer 45

P > Q ~P . ' . ~Q