Midterm Review Flashcards
What is social structure?
Social structure - stable patterns of social relations
4 types:
Microstructures - face-to-face relations (Family, friends)
Mesostructures - within organizations (Colleges, political parties)
Macrostructures - with social organizations/institutions (Class relations, patriarchy)
Global structures - across the globe (International organizations, economic relations b/w countries)
How did the sociological imagination originate?
- Developed by C. Wright Mills in the 1950s
- Based on observations from industrialization, class inequality, rate of investment, war, etc.
- Ability to see that personal struggles and social structures are connected
What are the main sociological theories?
Functionalism (Durkheim influence):
- Analyzes macrostructures + institutions that contribute to the functioning of society
- Focus on shared values/social stability
- Ideal society is an equilibrium
Conflict Theory (Marx influence):
- Analyzes microstructures, specifically class relations
- Focus on class inequality/privilege
- Ideal society is the reduction of privilege
Symbolic Interactionism (Weber influence):
- Analyzes microstructures and the individuals in social settings
- Focus on the individual meanings
- Ideal society involves respect for unpopular views
Feminist Theory (Martineau influence):
- Analyze micro and microstructures
- Focus on the patriarchy and how social structures uphold it
- Ideal society involves gender equality for the benefit of all
What are the uses of theory?
- Helps to see things from different points of view (Gives perspectives)
- Focus is put on different aspects with different theories (different questions to ask), so it creates a holistic view of an issue when all of them are put together
What are the main components of culture?
Abstraction - capacity to create symbols (general ideas that carry meaning)
Ex. Language –> Sapir-Whorf thesis (Experience, conceptualization, visualization triangle)
Cooperation - capacity to create a complex social life by establishing norms (generally accepted ways of doing things), which can then become laws when enforced by the state
Production - capacity to make and use tools/techniques that improve our ability to take what we want from nature
Ex. Increasing the division of labour (degree of specialization) to maximize production
What are the main ways in which culture has changed since about 1960?
- Culture has fragmented, creating postmodernism (which has 3 aspects)
- Blending of cultures/cultural elements from different times and places
- Erosion of authority
- Decline of consensus in core values
In what sense does culture act as a constraint on human action?
- Rationalization (applications of the most effective means to achieve goals + unintended negative effects of doing so)
Ex. Use of clocks/time to ensure efficiency, fast food restaurants and their workers getting food out quickly - Consumerism (tendency to define ourselves by the goods/services we buy)
Involves 5 steps:
1. **Create an all-encompassing environment (create the “sizzle” for products)
2. Normalize consumption (rely on need to conform)
3. Define and redefine what good taste is
4. **Planned obsolescence (frequent replacement)
5. ***Make products easy to buy (credit)
How have patterns of income and wealth changed in Canada and internationally in recent decades?
- Income gap is widening in Canada (the richest 20% earn 44% of Canada’s total income) + around the world (richest 20 countries VS the rest of the world)
- Wealth gap is increased (greater inequality of wealth than income) in Canada + internationally (0.1% of richest increased wealth by the same amount as the poorest half of global population)
What are the various forms of capital?
Economic capital - ownership of land, real estate, industrial plants + equipment, stocks + bonds (anything of economic value)
Human capital - investment in education/training (skill/expertise, usually based on schooling)
Social capital - networks that people are connected to, access to those who are well-positioned (knowing the right people)
Cultural capital - widely-shared high-status cultural signals (social skills) used to determine social/cultural inclusion/exclusion
How is poverty defined and explained?
- Definition isn’t agreed on since it can be absolute/relative (lack of resources or based on specific situations) or based on income/consumption
Explanations include:
- Individual (Low intelligence, abnormal behaviour, lack of motivation)
- Economic inequality (Capitalism and recessions, minimum wage not being enough)
- Social policies (Regressive tax system)
- Discrimination (Leads to less success finding jobs, any jobs found are likely low-wage)
What are the main sociological answers to the question of whether social stratification is inevitable?
NOT inevitable (Marx/Conflict theory)
- Capitalist societies care most about profit, which creates 2 classes (bourgeoisie/ownership class and proletariat/working class)
- Capitalist exploitation would encourage class polarization, which would lead to a demand to end class inequality
- A society without class (communism) was possible in Marx’s eyes
IS inevitable (Davis + Moore/Functionalist theory)
- Some jobs are more important than others, hence they get paid more
- Sacrifices need to be made for these more important jobs (More training), so high rewards (Prestige + money) need to be offered
- Inequality is necessary
We can choose to an extent (Weber)
- Classlessness is unlikely, but inequality can be minimal
- Citizens choose who to put into office, so political policies/parties affect how much inequality there is
What are the differences between binary and non-binary theories of sex, gender and sexual orientation?
Essentialism (Binary)
- Gender + sexual orientation rooted in biology (and are also a binary)
- Ignore variability (historical, cultural, situational)
Feminism (Non-binary)
- Gender + sexual orientation rooted in patriarchy (and are not binary)
- Stress the variability
What are the differences between essentialist and constructionist theories of gender?
Essentialist (Functionalist) - gender differences are biological differences, naturally evolved and need to be reinforced by society
Constructionist (All other theories) - gender is constructed by interaction with social structure + culture
Why has homosexuality become less of a stigma over the past century?
- Sexologist Alfred Kinsey + his colleagues concluded that homosexuality was widespread and can’t be considered an illness in the 1940s
- Sexual minorities provided social + political energy to make it public/more normalized
What is heteronormativity and why does it remain a durable norm?
Heteronormativity - the belief that sex (+ gender and sexual orientation) are naturally binary
- Gender roles are heavily ingrained into society, even though they may be subconscious (Different activities encouraged for different genders, different expectations for behaviour, different toys, etc.)
