Lectures 11 and 12 - Research Methods Flashcards
Why does science need values?
- Values stimulate theorizing
(Ex. Einstein’s ideas of quantum theory) - Values influence the selection of problems worth studying
(Weber –> events that we attach cultural significance to)
How does science differ from common sense?
- Science is based on subjectivity AND research methods that minimize subjectivity
- Science invites contrary opinion and evidence (not just one view)
- Encourages systematic scrutiny + skepticism
What are the 3 levels of experiences that people can have?
- Concrete/Experiential –> perceptions + patterns
- Abstract/Theoretical –> concepts + propostions
- Researchable/Testable –> operationalizations + hypotheses
What are the 2 types of sociological research?
- Qualitative –> observes interactions, discovers patterns and constructs theories based on observations (induction)
- Quantitative –> creates theories and tests them using statistics (deduction)
How do the qualitative and quantitative research cycles differ?
- Both decided what matters, and observe and read
Quantitative:
- Formulate theory
- Select method
- Collect data
- Analyze data
- Report results
- Goes back to 1
Qualitative:
- Select method
- Collect data
- Analyze data
- FORMULATE THEORY
- Report results
- Back to 1
What are the ethical considerations of research?
- Safety of subjects
- Subject’s voluntary participation + informed consent
- Subject’s privacy
- Subject’s confidentiality
- No falsifying data
- No plagiarizing
- Indigenous Canadians can control research data and the uses to which the data is put
(Qualitative research) Define participant observation.
Moving back and forth b/w inside and outside observation (Balancing objectivity w/ understanding the meaning that insiders attach to certain elements of their culture)
Define reactivity.
AKA the Hawthorne Effect
When a subject’s behaviour is influenced by the researcher’s presence
Define exploratory research.
Participant-observation research in which researchers have little sense of what they’re looking for (they have hunches), which changes once they have field notes (hypotheses are rejected, accepted or modified)
What are the drawbacks of participant observation?
- Scope –> suitable for only face-to-face interaction
- Reliability –> debatable whether another researcher would find the same observations
- Generalizability –> unclear as to how widely the findings apply
- Access –> race, gender, class and age differences can make it difficult to study certain groups
Define experiment.
A carefully controlled artificial situation that allows researchers to isolate hypothesized causes and measure their effects
What is the difference between an experimental group and a control group?
Experimental - gets exposed to the hypothesized cause
Control - does not get exposed to the cause
What is the difference between a dependent and independent variable?
Dependent - hypothesized effect
Independent - hypothesized cause
What are the 6 steps in a simple experiment?
- Recruit subjects.
- Randomly assign them.
- 2 groups (Experimental and control)
- Measure the dependent variable for both groups.
- Expose the experimental group to the variable (don’t for the control group).
- Re-measure the dependent variable to see the degree to which it has changed.
What is the difference between the validity of findings and the reliability of findings?
Validity - accuracy of the findings
Reliability - repeatability/consistency of the findings
What is a correlation?
An association between 2 variables (a change in one means a change in the other)
What is the difference between a population and a sample?
Population - a whole group of interest
Sample - part of a group
What is sampling bias and how is it determined?
How well a sample matches the population
Determined by:
- Sample size
- Sample representativeness
Define probability sample.
A sample that is more or less representative of the population of interest (because units are chosen randomly)
Define sampling frame.
A list of all the units of a population of interest
How does sampling error affect conclusions?
When comparing 2 findings, if the margins of error overlap, then there is no statistical significance between them. If they don’t overlap, there is statistical significance.
What are the threats to validity in survey research?
- Undercounting (imperfect sampling frame)
- Nonresponse
- Response bias (not accurate due to reactivity)
- Problematic wording effects (questions aren’t simple, specific and neutral)
What is the difference between experimental research and nonexperimental research?
Experimental - randomized allocation of subjects into groups and repeating the experiment many times
Nonexperimental - controlling for variables that are expected to be relevant
What is the problem of induction?
(Hume) No matter how many observations you make, you can’t correctly infer your next observation
(White VS Black swan example)
How did Kuhn challenge the idea of scientific knowledge?
He argued that:
1. Science developed through contributions from scholars who used “paradigms” –> evidence that didn’t fit was ignored until it was enough to create something new
- Truth is contextual (New paradigm = new context)
- Paradigms put focus on a certain set of questions and answers
What are the 4 criteria for a causal relationship?
- Changes have to be associated/correlated
- The presumed cause has to temporally precede the presumed effect
- Confirmation that no other factors are affecting it
- Examination of the mechanisms that create the linkages
What are the 4 things to not assume when administering a survey?
- People understand what you’re asking (Language differences)
- People know the answer (Can be a guess)
- People will admit the answer
- People will give valid answers (Social desirability)
Define ethnography.
Studying in the people’s own environment/natural setting (researcher immersed in a group/subculture)
What are the issues with ethnography?
- Conclusions can be dependent on impressions from a single subculture (the group is specifically chosen)
- Ethnocentric findings (imposing of researcher’s own values)
- Questions can be formatted to “create” the findings
What is verstehen (understanding)?
(Weber) Understanding the meaning of a social action requires (at least in principle) to fully engage in a social activity
How is scientific research distinct from the work of other professionals?
- Research results are subject to critical skepticism before publication
- Social theory guides evidence gathered
- Evidence is systematically collected + analyzed
What is the song played at the end of lecture 12?
Summertime (composed by George Gershwin, sung by Billy Stewart)
- Song is a reminder that better times are ahead
