Midterm Lecture Material Flashcards

Question

True/False a causality relationship can exist without correlation?

Answer 1

false - we need correlation to really have causation in the first place

Answer 2

Simple random sampling is the basic sampling technique where we select a group of subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Answer 3

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.

Answer 4

maximizes odds that we don't have a "cohort effect" and that our results generalize

Answer 5

Random assignment refers to the use of chance procedures in psychology experiments to ensure that each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any given group.

Answer 6

The control group is defined as the group in an experiment or study that does not receive treatment by the researchers and is then used as a benchmark to measure how the other tested subjects do.

Answer 7

A study done in such a way that the patients or subjects do not know (is blinded as to) what treatment they are receiving to ensure that the results are not affected by a placebo effect (the power of suggestion).

Answer 8

In a single blind study, the participants in the clinical trial do not know if they are receiving the placebo or the real treatment. ... In a double-blind study, both the participants and the experimenters do not know which group got the placebo and which got the experimental treatment.

Answer 9

knowing there is a self

Answer 10

humans (>1-2 age), chimps, orangutang, some gorillas, dolphins

Answer 11

The self-schema refers to a long lasting and stable set of memories that summarize a person's beliefs, experiences and generalizations about the self, in specific behavioral domains. - are templates or ideas we have for understanding the self

Answer 12

- introspection - perceptions of own behavior - comparing ourselves to other people - autobiographical memories

Answer 13

explaining why we did things: thoughts, behaviours - pantyhose experiment

Answer 14

Affective forecasting (also known as hedonic forecasting, or the hedonic forecasting mechanism) is the prediction of one's affect (emotional state) in the future.

Answer 15

NO - we are bad at understanding reasons for our own behaviours - we are also pretty bad at predicting how we will feel in the future in response to various experiences

Answer 16

- impact bias: we OVERestimate strengths and duration of responses (humans are very good at emotional resilience, they recover and adapt - we also UNDERestimate influence of other stuff, events

Answer 17

In the psychology of affective forecasting, the impact bias, a form of which is the durability bias, is the tendency for people to overestimate the length or the intensity of future emotional states.

Answer 18

watching our behaviours and inferring internal traits/states

Answer 19

Daryl Bem - we observe our behaviours in a way and we interpret them to explain who we are, what we were we doing and why, etc. at the time. - It asserts that people develop their attitudes by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused it. EX: if your job to punch walls, you would say you are punching walls for your job and not because you are angry

Answer 20

- knew participants had strong or ambiguous attitudes about environment - completed one of two questionnaires - -> have you ever recycled? - -> do you always recycle? strong attitudes = questionnaire did nothing ambiguous attitudes = reported themselves consistent with questionnaire

Answer 21

- intrinsic and extrinsic

Answer 22

- when receiving extrinsic rewards, can attribute rationale for activity to reward - critically, this can make people lose interest in activity when reward removed EX: goldstar and coloring experiment

Answer 23

- observing our behaviours is a method people employ to learn about ourselves and develop a concept of "self" - not perfect, as various experiments have shown researchers can "lead" people to think one way or another about themselves - more likely to happen for the attitudes that we don't already have a strong opinion about. Then once formed, those opinions about ourselves are harder to change

Answer 24

-tend to describe ourselves in ways that distinguish us from one another -other people help us to define ourselves Ex: if you are a ginger in a group of gingers, you are not going to define yourself as ginger

Answer 25

McGuire --> % of school children mentioned their gender in spontaneous self-description

Answer 26

``` We are particularly likely to compare ourselves to others when unsure or ambiguous about ourselves or performance EX: your grade is XX and you compare it to the class average ```

Answer 27

Schachter and Singer - we are not good at determining which emotion we are feeling - we can use social comparisons to determine what we might be feeling. EX: epinephrine experiment, when the participants didn't know what they were injected with, they felt the way confederate was acting.

Answer 28

2 pieces of information: 1. Physiological feelings associated with emotion 2. Cognitive interpretation EX: pain vs orgasm pictures (you need context)

Answer 29

- tend to think and describe ourselves in ways that separate us from other people - we use other people to discern our own attitudes/performance/ emotions when we are particularly uncertain about our attitudes/performance/emotions - the ways we see we are similar and different from others help us define our self-concept

Answer 30

- just as we can "observe ourselves" to determine self-concept, we can draw from memory/older experiences but we don't remember all events equally or objectively

Answer 31

we remember more recent things more easily

Answer 32

- recent - firsts/surprising: first day of uni, 911, moon landing - positive events

Answer 33

how much value people put on themselves high ---> feel good about self low ---> feels less good/uncertain about self

Answer 34

both trait and state - self esteem is pretty stable over lifetime - TRAIT - but short-term variation following pos/neg feedback - STATE

Answer 35

some evidence that some people fluctuate a lot in response to feedback, making them highly responsive to praise and overly sensitive to criticism

Answer 36

higher life satisfaction lower depression higher self-efficacy more confidence in being liked by others

Answer 37

- equally liked, intelligent, competent - little vidence that HSE causes better outcomes (except in romantic relationships) - more evidence that self-esteem is a consequence of whatever that is going on in our lives

Answer 38

- no gender differences - in NA some minority groups have higher self-esteem - NA score higher than East Asians BUT - when we measure self-esteem across groups/cultures in other ways (not-self reported) we find similar results (cultural differences in acceptability, relatively equal self-esteem across all humans)

Answer 39

- ongoing thermometer of our level of acceptance or rejection by the group - to make sure we are part of a group - to survive - evolutionary psychological perspective that proposes that state self-esteem is a gauge of interpersonal relationships

Answer 40

actual self: a representation of the traits/attributes that you believe you actually possess. ought self: traits that would help you meet duties and responsibilities (traits tahta you think you should have, society thinks that you should have) ideal self: traits that would help you meet your hopes, wishes and dreams (traits that you want to have)

Answer 41

Higgins - Discrepancy between both actual self vs ought self --> guilt, shame ex: your mom wants you to be a priest but you don't actual self vs ideal self ---> disappointment, frustration, sadness ex: your dream was to be a priest but you are not

Answer 42

- we dont think about ourselves that much - people wore beepers for a week and wrote down what they were thinking every time it beeped, 4700 recorded thoughts and 8% is about self Csikszentmihalyi & Figurski 1982

Answer 43

1. Fix what we are feeling bad about 2. Stop thinking about it (distracting ourselves - not always possible to fix easily (being poor, married t someone we dislike) - drug, alcohol, sexual overindulgence, binge-eating, suicide, TV are methods to "stop thinking about it" - Baumeister

Answer 44

Enhancing the self to one self and to others

Answer 45

people see themselves as better than average on most positive dimensions (and things that they personally value)

Answer 46

- Everyone tends to overestimate own abilities - but some do it more than others - participants with lowest scores on logic, humour, and grammar were the ones most likely to overestimate their own abilities

Answer 47

mental shortcut - replace a tough question with an easier question to answer. - partly self-serving bias, and partly self-focused thinking

Answer 48

we like stuff associated with the self. influences our major decisions denise --> dentist louise ---> lives in St. Louis

Answer 49

4 strategies that humans employ to feel better about themselves: - self-serving cognitions - self-handicapping - BIRGing - Downward social comparison

Answer 50

- take credit for success, distance for failure - passes test --> I am smart - fails test --> prof sucks - INTRINSIC explanations for successes and EXTRINSIC explanations for failures

Answer 51

- to protect our self-esteem - only positive estimate od our future - people think that they will have higher GPAs, better jobs, etc. - People think that they have more control over their futures than they do

Answer 52

- often make excuses for past performance - make excuses for future performance - behaviours that sabotage performance provide an excuse for failure - men --> not preparing, drugs/alcohol - women --> reporting stress, physical symptoms

Answer 53

- protects self-esteem with failure and enhances SE with success - increases risk of failure

Answer 54

- cutting off reflected failure - we identify groups/teams/friends/siblings when they experience success, and distance with failure - we won, they lost - school sweatshirts after a win

Answer 55

comparing self to others important - often downward - 53% downward in hospital, 12% upward - the more often they compared the better they felt

Answer 56

- human faces really capture our attention | - see faces, attribute personality

Answer 57

100ms seems to be the threshold for recognizing faces in a crowd

Answer 58

- trustworthy: friendly, warm, carin - dominant: competent, strong, intelligent - attractive: youthful, healthy

Answer 59

we infer personality characteristics based on similarity one's appearance with learned associations EX: babyfacedness, resting bitch face (emotion overgeneralization) - upturned lips --> happy, friendly - downturned lips --> mean, aggressive - most of the time not accurate BUT does predict stuff so humans use it

Answer 60

- dating decisions - elections (more feminine women more likely to win) - hiring - promotion - criminality

Answer 61

we use others' appearance to make inferences into their personality - bodies, clothes, faces - not often accurate because most humans do, appearance predicts outcome

Answer 62

Tennis players winning or losing the point | Aviezer, Trope, Todorov

Answer 63

happy, sad, angry, disgust

Answer 64

since self-directed anger (with eye-gaze) indicates threat, important to detect (and avoid/respond) quickly

Answer 65

- extraversion - conscientiousness - openness - agreeableness - emotional stability

Answer 66

false shaky accuracy

Answer 67

we observe and analyze others to explain their behavior (Heider) a theory that supposes that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them.

Answer 68

1. Personal - INTRINSIC 2. Situational - EXTRINSIC Why did Mayweather punch McGregor? - because he is aggressive (intrinsic) - because he is a fighter (extrinsic)

Answer 69

AKA. Correspondance Bias - the tendency to overlook the impact of situation and attribute to someone's action to his or her disposition EX: we think that the Jeopardy presenter is smarter than he is bc he is presenting the questions and has the answers to every question but that doesn't necessarily mean he knows all the answers to the questions

Answer 70

- underestimate the power of situational factors

Answer 71

1. Form impression --> AUTOMATIC | 2. Correct/Update impression ---> TAKES EFFORT

Answer 72

1. negative behavior (a man is rude at the grocery store to the cashier) ---> dispositional attribution (this man is a hostile person) ---> unfavourable reaction (i don't like him) 2. negative behavior (a man is rude at the grocery store to the cashier) ---> situational attribution (the man is in a hurry to get home to his sick child) ---> sympathetic reaction (i understand)

Answer 73

- fish tank and describe | - NA described fish (intrinsic), East Asians described the things in the tank (extrinsic)

Answer 74

so many individual differences - motivation - cognitive beliefs - current emotions - -> can change how we interpret information when forming impressions of others

Answer 75

- a perceivers goals/beliefs influence how others are perceived - not necessarily more accurately (smiles, signs of sexual interest more so for men, costly for women)

Answer 76

they are different in the muscles used real smiles use zygomaticus (jaw), and orbitalocularis (eyes)

Answer 77

- believe in a just world, universal karma - poor people --> lazy, rich --> intelligent - FAE to the person, not the situations these people in

Answer 78

- current mood can also shift our attributions - people given feedback about themselves made them (happy ---> optimistic about the situation that they were later put in in comparison to sad) "benefit of the doubt"

Answer 79

The negativity bias, also known as the negativity effect, is the notion that, even when of equal intensity, things of a more negative nature have a greater effect on one's psychological state and processes than neutral or positive things.

Answer 80

Learning about some traits first influence how all subsequent traits are perceived (Asch) - first impression matter, subsequent info less attended takes more to update impression

Answer 81

is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Answer 82

the tendency to ask only the questions that will lead to the expected answer.

Answer 83

A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior. ex: teachers were told that some kids were "bloomers" (all randomly assigned) and in the end those kids were performing better than other kids in the class

Answer 84

- takes effort - confirmation bias - confirmatory hypothesis testing - self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 85

Associations with groups of people | - no valence involved: can be positive, negative, or neutral

Answer 86

Judgements (negative) of groups of people | - valence involved: group X is bad

Answer 87

BEHAVIORS or differential treatment of groups of people

Answer 88

an ingroup is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. By contrast, an outgroup is a social group with which an individual does not identify.

Answer 89

No - our ancestors did not encounter individuals of other "races" - hunter/gatherer societies (slow moving, mostly stayed in same area for many generations) - yet outsiders (mostly other tribes) still dangerous due to disease, steal resources, kill men and steal women) - appearance based signals "outsiderness" used to identify danger, otherness, trigger own group favouritism.

Answer 90

true - race is a social construct - black in NA can be considered white in Brazil - SOCIAL thing, we use to slice up the world, and behave in functional ways

Answer 91

- Done by Sherif - summer camp for 22 11-12 year old boys with similar backgrounds - 3 phases to the experiment (ingroup formation, friction, integration) - ingroup formation: they are not aware of the other group, they are given names, symbols and flags to define identity - friction: they are aware of the other group, engage in competitive tasks, hostility breaks out - integration: hard to reduce hostility, superordinate goals ultimately worked and groups became friendly while working towards the same goal.

Answer 92

realistic conflict theory: direct competition between groups for resources breeds hostility relative deprivation theory: ACTUAL/ABSOLUTE resources don't matter. PERCEIVED resource DISPARITIES lead to conflict

Answer 93

The theory explains how intergroup hostility can arise as a result of conflicting goals and competition over limited resources, and it also offers an explanation for the feelings of prejudice and discrimination toward the outgroup that accompany the intergroup hostility.

Answer 94

Social identity is the portion of an individual's self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group.

Answer 95

The minimal group paradigm is a methodology employed in social psychology. Although it may be used for a variety of purposes, it is most well known as a method for investigating the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between groups.

Answer 96

In-group favoritism, sometimes known as in-group–out-group bias, in-group bias, or intergroup bias, is a pattern of favoring members of one's in-group over out-group members.

Answer 97

a negative attitude against a specific social group that is consciously held, even if not expressed publicly.

Answer 98

old --> white people are smarter than black modern --> discrimination against black doesn't exist anymore in NA the questions that are asked about racism on questionnaires changed overtime. Level of explicit prejudice decreased overtime.

Answer 99

The implicit-association test (IAT) is a measure within social psychology designed to detect the strength of a person's automatic association between mental representations of objects (concepts) in memory. - implicit bias

Answer 100

implicit bias refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner.

Answer 101

explicit --> self-report | implicit --> based on reaction times, or means OTHER than self-report.

Answer 102

- easier to slice up people into groups | - OVERESTIMATE differences between groups and UNDERESTIMATE differences within groups.

Answer 103

The out-group homogeneity effect is one's perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members ex: Asians look the same to whites

Answer 104

schemas --> ways of organizing information stereotypes --> schemas for social groups ex: Irish like potatoes often lead to error when applying to individuals (American stereotype)

Answer 105

confirmation bias

Answer 106

ALLPORT 1954 - Subtyping occurs when perceivers respond to members of a target group who disconfirm their stereotypes by seeing them as exceptions to the rule and placing them in a separate subcategory apart from members who confirm the stereotype. - EX: women = kind, nurturing, warm, stay home, make babies Hillary Clinton = career-based woman 1. update stereotype xxx 2. make new subcategory "career women"

Answer 107

- stereotyping confirmation behavior --> intrinsic explanation (he liked potatoes bc he is Irish) - stereotyping disconfirmation behavior --> extrinsic explanation (stereoptype endures)

Answer 108

expectations that cme from stereotypes can shape people's real world outcomes

Answer 109

- stereotypes are learned | - can convey positive norms as well (RWANDA intergroup conflict podcast reduced the problems)

Answer 110

The model is based on the notion that people are evolutionarily predisposed to first assess a stranger's intent to either harm or help them (warmth dimension) and second to judge the stranger’s capacity to act on that perceived intention (competence dimension). - 4 dimensions - it is powerful bc if we know these 2 pieces of information about those groups then we can predict the way individuals will respond to them.

Answer 111

- No, activation is automatic in our environment - BUT we CAN control whether we are going to act on them or not. - Motivation to suppress prejudice/stereotypes - -> internal: egalitarian - -> external: don't want to look prejudiced

Answer 112

Discrimination between ingroups and outgroups is a matter of favoritism towards an ingroup and the absence of equivalent favoritism towards an outgroup. Outgroup derogation is the phenomenon in which an outgroup is perceived as being threatening to the members of an ingroup.

Answer 113

for most people, bias manifests in ambiguous situation in which tere is no clear norm or social script EX: mechanics phone call experiment - whites helped black equally as white if they listened long enough - BUT hung up on black callers earlier before they could ask for help

Answer 114

negative evaluations of racial/ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism is characterized by more complex, ambivalent expressions and attitudes. - most people have egalitarian ideals, but will act prejudiced when safe, socially acceptable, or when situation is ambiguous so that you can attribute behaviours to something other than racism - potentially driven more by slightly anxiety or uncomfortability rather than hatred.

Answer 115

False interracial interactions can be mentally exhausting because people self-monitor to avoid appearing prejudiced - also try to avoid these interactions due to this fear/anxiety

Answer 116

prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex.

Answer 117

Ambivalent sexism is a theoretical framework which posits that sexism has two sub-components: "hostile sexism" and "benevolent sexism".

Answer 118

Hostile sexism reflects overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about a gender (e.g., the ideas that women are incompetent and inferior to men).

Answer 119

Benevolent sexism represents evaluations of gender that may appear subjectively positive (subjective to the person who is evaluating), but are actually damaging to people and gender equality more broadly (e.g., the ideas that women need to be protected by men).

Answer 120

Maternity leave policy - women who were exposed to hostile sexism reported more likely to protest the policy - the benevolent sexism reported less protest compared to the control group.

Answer 121

The glass cliff is the phenomenon of women in leadership roles, such as executives in the corporate world and female political election candidates, being likelier than men to achieve leadership roles during periods of crisis or downturn, when the chance of failure is highest.

Answer 122

``` stereotype threat (Steele): fear of acting in a manner consistent with stereotypes - received a lot of attention in education (black less intelligent, women not good at math) ```

Answer 123

True asian women asian --> good at math --> did good on test women ---> women bad at math --> did worse on test

Answer 124

- increases anxiety/physiological arousal, interfering thinking, coordination - stereotype thought suppression - focus on avoiding failure rather than pursuing success

Answer 125

contact hypothesis (ALLPORT)

Answer 126

the contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can effectively reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.

Answer 127

implicit bias training

Answer 128

self-esteem: attitudes toward self | prejudice: attitudes towards others

Answer 129

a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person.

Answer 130

Cognitive heuristic: are simple, efficient rules which people often use to form judgments and make decisions.

Answer 131

- self-report (pros: simple, cons: can lie, questions might be too simple to capture data - bogus pipeline: is a fake polygraph used to get participants to truthfully respond to emotional/affective questions in survey - indirect measures: less controllable IAT, reaction time, facial expressions, tone of voice, body language. Pros: directly compliments the weaknesses or self-reported measures. Cons: less control, there can be confounding variable

Answer 132

Nurture (environment) - attitudes change a lot during uni, when people are exposed to different norms than family/hometown Nature (genetics) - some things: conservatism to liberalism, sexual promiscuity, religiosity - twin studies: examine identical twins raised in same vs different homes Politics - individuals who are more reactive to negative stimuli:

Answer 133

no sometimes there is a disconnect

Answer 134

LaPiere - road trip with Chinese-American couple around the US - Asian prejudice high at time - 250 restaurants only 1 rejected - wrote letter and asked if they would accept Chinese patrons (90% said no)

Answer 135

the theory of planned behavior is a theory that links one's beliefs and behavior. The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual's behavioral intentions and behaviors. - attitude - subjective norm - perceived behavioural control

Answer 136

what is the norm in the environment that you are in

Answer 137

why you think you can control the behavior in the first place

Answer 138

- affect own outcomes/interest - related to deeply held philosophical/moral/religious values - of concern to family/ingroup

Answer 139

- people well-informed (or think they are) - when attitudes are from personal experience rather than learned - after resisting some sort of attack on attitude

Answer 140

getting people to think of their identities help attitudes influence bahaviour IV: participants asked - how important is it for you to be a voter in the upcoming election? (noun condition) - how important is it for you to vote in the upcoming election (verb condition) DV: based on state records, who actually ended up voting? noun condition > verb conditions

Answer 141

Attitude determine behavior under specific circumstances - social influences on attitudes are minimized - other influences on behvior minimized - attitude corresponds closely to behvior - attitude is salient

Answer 142

The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. EX: women sitting in class and the more students in class the more liked she was

Answer 143

Central: people being influenced by strength and quality of arguements Peripheral: when influenced by other, non-central cues

Answer 144

- when people are motivated to think carefully about the issues (this might be rare) - most effective when make strong arguments - weak arguments will backfire, people will counterargue

Answer 145

- when people are not motivated, or are distracted or busy - most effective when include cues that people use to make decisions without a lot of thought - associating the product with cool and attractive people

Answer 146

- source - message elements - audience

Answer 147

credibility - competence and trustworthiness ex: birth-x attractiveness

Answer 148

Central: people being influenced by strength and quality of arguements Peripheral: when influenced by other, non-central cues

Answer 149

- when people are motivated to think carefully about the issues (this might be rare) - most effective when make strong arguments - weak arguments will backfire, people will counterargue

Answer 150

- when people are not motivated, or are distracted or busy - most effective when include cues that people use to make decisions without a lot of thought - associating the product with cool and attractive people

Answer 151

- source - message elements - audience

Answer 152

credibility - competence and trustworthiness ex: birth-x attractiveness and liking - physical attractiveness - similarities ex: no meat petition

Answer 153

you forget the details and you don't remember all the reasons behind your decisions. The message has a greater impact later on

Answer 154

true ex: cancer pictures on cigarettes

Answer 155

big discrepancy - exercise 60 min a day works best if the source is credible small discrepancy - exercise once or twice a week works if it is not credible source one sided appeal vs two sided appeal - one side is only mentioning pros (if audience agrees and has no cons then this is the best way) - two sided addresses cons too, if the audience already opposes the message two sided works better primacy vs recency - primacy information presented early has more influence - information presented last can sometimes overwrite information that comes first

Answer 156

- one side is only mentioning pros (if audience agrees and has no cons then this is the best way) - two sided addresses cons too, if the audience already opposes the message two sided works better

Answer 157

- primacy information presented early has more influence | - information presented last can sometimes overwrite information that comes first

Answer 158

- make people feel good vs make them feel scared - big vs small discrepancy - one sided vs two sided appeal - primacy vs recency effect

Answer 159

In the study, volunteers were randomly assigned to be either "guards" or "prisoners" in a mock prison, with Zimbardo himself serving as the superintendent. Several "prisoners" left mid-experiment, and the whole experiment was abandoned after six days. Early reports on experimental results claimed that students quickly embraced their assigned roles, with some guards enforcing authoritarian measures and ultimately subjecting some prisoners to psychological torture, while many prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and, by the officers' request, actively harassed other prisoners who tried to stop it.

Answer 160

Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance.