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8) Social Psychology > Midterm Lecture Material > Flashcards

Midterm Lecture Material Flashcards

1
Q

What is social psychology?

A

the study of individuals (thoughts, feelings, actions)
- often empirical and experimental
manipulate aspects of social environment and see how this affects thoughts, feelings or behavior

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2
Q

What is the difference between social and personality psychology?

A

social psychology studies personality and the interaction with the environment but personality psychologists tend to study more of the individuals and social psychology more of the individual and its environment

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3
Q

What is the difference between cognitive and personality psychology?

A

cognitive is based on memory, thinking, learning, remembering

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4
Q

What is the difference between developmental and personality psychology?

A

how kids develop, learning etc. Examine how other field of study unfolds overtime

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5
Q

What is the difference between neuro and social psychology?

A

cutting open brains, MRI, biological focus like chemical properties

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6
Q

What is the difference between clinical and social psychology?

A

anything that is related to overall health, depression, quality of the relationship, psychological well-being

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7
Q

What is the difference between quantitative and social psychology?

A

statistical tools to make conclusions

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8
Q

Give examples to nudge squads

A
  • small farms gaining access to credit

- increasing recycling

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9
Q

Who did the pantyhose experiment?

A

Nisbett and WIlson

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10
Q

Explain the pantyhose experiment

A

The subjects were not told that the stockings were in fact identical. Wilson and Nisbett presented the stockings to the subjects hanging on racks spaced equal distances apart. When asked about their respective judgments, most of the subjects attributed their decision to the knit, weave, sheerness, elasticity, or workmanship of the stockings that they chose to be of the best quality.

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11
Q

Explain the experiment that was done by Triplett that kind of became the setting stone of social psychology

A

cyclists are faster in the presence of others

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12
Q

What are the first textbooks on social psychology?

A
  • McDougall
  • Ross
  • Allport
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13
Q

What is the big event that led to more social psychology research in 1930-1950?

A
  • The WWII - Hitler
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14
Q

What are the names of the psychologists involved in social psychology research in 1930-1950?

A
  • Sherif –> intergroup research
  • Lewin –> interaction between personality and environment
  • Asch –> conformity - social pressure to give and answer
  • Milgram –> obedience, conformity
  • Festinger –> cognitive dissonance
  • Allport –> intergroup bias

– basically all trying to determine how humans could do such things to other humans

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15
Q

Explain the study “Feeling the Future” by Bem

A
  • 9 experiments finding evidence for “psi” –> precognition, predicting the future
  • 100 participants
  • erotic and non erotic photos
  • 52%
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16
Q

What are the ingredients of irreproducible research?

A
  1. institutional resources (“publish or perish”)
  2. flashy and significant effects needed to publish (publication bias)
  3. lost of ways to analyze data (intentional or unintentional p-hacking)
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17
Q

What is the Amgen Cancer study?

A

47/53 landmark cancer papers were not reproducible

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18
Q

What are the ways to increase replicability?

A
  • psychological science accelerator

- open data, open code, methods etc.

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19
Q

Does power posing work?

A

no

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20
Q

Does ego-depletion work

A

not significant

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21
Q

Is stereotype threat a real thing?

A

not as effective as we thought

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22
Q

What is experimenter bias?

A

the experimenter having and effect on the study

Ex: the Coca-Cola challenge

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23
Q

Why do we do psychology research?

A
  • to understand why things happen
  • if we have a good understanding, we can predict the future
  • establish causality
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24
Q

Give examples to correlation is not causation

A

crime vs ice cream sales

books vs child’s education level

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25
Q

True/False

a causality relationship can exist without correlation?

A

false

  • we need correlation to really have causation in the first place
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26
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Simple random sampling is the basic sampling technique where we select a group of subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

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27
Q

What is convenience sampling?

A

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.

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28
Q

What are the pros of random sampling?

A

maximizes odds that we don’t have a “cohort effect” and that our results generalize

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29
Q

What is random assignment?

A

Random assignment refers to the use of chance procedures in psychology experiments to ensure that each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any given group.

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30
Q

What is the control group in an experiment?

A

The control group is defined as the group in an experiment or study that does not receive treatment by the researchers and is then used as a benchmark to measure how the other tested subjects do.

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31
Q

What is blinding?

A

A study done in such a way that the patients or subjects do not know (is blinded as to) what treatment they are receiving to ensure that the results are not affected by a placebo effect (the power of suggestion).

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32
Q

Single blind vs double blind

A

In a single blind study, the participants in the clinical trial do not know if they are receiving the placebo or the real treatment. … In a double-blind study, both the participants and the experimenters do not know which group got the placebo and which got the experimental treatment.

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33
Q

What is self-concept?

A

knowing there is a self

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34
Q

Give examples of animals that recognize themselves in the mirror

A

humans (>1-2 age), chimps, orangutang, some gorillas, dolphins

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35
Q

What is self-schema?

A

The self-schema refers to a long lasting and stable set of memories that summarize a person’s beliefs, experiences and generalizations about the self, in specific behavioral domains.

  • are templates or ideas we have for understanding the self
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36
Q

What are the wats that we can know the self (theoretically)?

A
  • introspection
  • perceptions of own behavior
  • comparing ourselves to other people
  • autobiographical memories
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37
Q

What is introspection and give and example of where we have seen it?

A

explaining why we did things: thoughts, behaviours

  • pantyhose experiment
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38
Q

What is affective forecasting?

A

Affective forecasting (also known as hedonic forecasting, or the hedonic forecasting mechanism) is the prediction of one’s affect (emotional state) in the future.

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39
Q

Does introspection work?

A

NO

  • we are bad at understanding reasons for our own behaviours
  • we are also pretty bad at predicting how we will feel in the future in response to various experiences
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40
Q

Why are we not good at introspection?

A
  • impact bias: we OVERestimate strengths and duration of responses (humans are very good at emotional resilience, they recover and adapt
  • we also UNDERestimate influence of other stuff, events
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41
Q

What is impact bias?

A

In the psychology of affective forecasting, the impact bias, a form of which is the durability bias, is the tendency for people to overestimate the length or the intensity of future emotional states.

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42
Q

What is perception of our own behaviours?

A

watching our behaviours and inferring internal traits/states

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43
Q

What is the self-perception theory? Who found it? Give and example

A

Daryl Bem

  • we observe our behaviours in a way and we interpret them to explain who we are, what we were we doing and why, etc. at the time.
  • It asserts that people develop their attitudes by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused it.

EX: if your job to punch walls, you would say you are punching walls for your job and not because you are angry

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44
Q

What did Chaiken and Baldwin find on perception of our own behaviour?

A
  • knew participants had strong or ambiguous attitudes about environment
  • completed one of two questionnaires
  • -> have you ever recycled?
  • -> do you always recycle?

strong attitudes = questionnaire did nothing
ambiguous attitudes = reported themselves consistent with questionnaire

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45
Q

How do we perceive our motivations?

A
  • intrinsic and extrinsic
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46
Q

What is the over-justification effect? Give example

A
  • when receiving extrinsic rewards, can attribute rationale for activity to reward
  • critically, this can make people lose interest in activity when reward removed
    EX: goldstar and coloring experiment
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47
Q

Does perception of our own behaviours work in defining self?

A
  • observing our behaviours is a method people employ to learn about ourselves and develop a concept of “self”
  • not perfect, as various experiments have shown researchers can “lead” people to think one way or another about themselves
  • more likely to happen for the attitudes that we don’t already have a strong opinion about. Then once formed, those opinions about ourselves are harder to change
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48
Q

How do we define self by comparing ourselves to other people?

A

-tend to describe ourselves in ways that distinguish us from one another
-other people help us to define ourselves
Ex: if you are a ginger in a group of gingers, you are not going to define yourself as ginger

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49
Q

What is situational distinctiveness?

A

McGuire –> % of school children mentioned their gender in spontaneous self-description

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50
Q

What is Festinger’s social comparison theory?

A 
We are particularly likely to compare ourselves to others when unsure or ambiguous about ourselves or performance 
EX: your grade is XX and you compare it to the class average
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51
Q

What is the two-factor theory of emotion? Give an example? Who are the psychologists?

A

Schachter and Singer
- we are not good at determining which emotion we are feeling
- we can use social comparisons to determine what we might be feeling.
EX: epinephrine experiment, when the participants didn’t know what they were injected with, they felt the way confederate was acting.

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52
Q

What do we need to “put a label on” what we are feeling?

A

2 pieces of information:
1. Physiological feelings associated with emotion
2. Cognitive interpretation
EX: pain vs orgasm pictures (you need context)

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53
Q

Does comparing ourselves to other people work in defining self?

A
  • tend to think and describe ourselves in ways that separate us from other people
  • we use other people to discern our own attitudes/performance/ emotions when we are particularly uncertain about our attitudes/performance/emotions
  • the ways we see we are similar and different from others help us define our self-concept
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54
Q

What are autobiographical memories and how does it define self?

A
  • just as we can “observe ourselves” to determine self-concept, we can draw from memory/older experiences but we don’t remember all events equally or objectively
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55
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

we remember more recent things more easily

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56
Q

What are the events that we remember more easily?

A
  • recent
  • firsts/surprising: first day of uni, 911, moon landing
  • positive events
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57
Q

What is self-esteem?

A

how much value people put on themselves
high —> feel good about self
low —> feels less good/uncertain about self

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58
Q

What are the 2 elements of self-esteem?

A

both trait and state

  • self esteem is pretty stable over lifetime - TRAIT
  • but short-term variation following pos/neg feedback - STATE
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59
Q

What are the characteristics of a people who has a fluctuating self-esteem?

A

some evidence that some people fluctuate a lot in response to feedback, making them highly responsive to praise and overly sensitive to criticism

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60
Q

Higher self esteem is associated with ….

A

higher life satisfaction
lower depression
higher self-efficacy
more confidence in being liked by others

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61
Q

What are the differences in high and low self-esteem?

A
  • equally liked, intelligent, competent
  • little vidence that HSE causes better outcomes (except in romantic relationships)
  • more evidence that self-esteem is a consequence of whatever that is going on in our lives
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62
Q

What are the group differences in self-esteem?

A
  • no gender differences
  • in NA some minority groups have higher self-esteem
  • NA score higher than East Asians
    BUT
  • when we measure self-esteem across groups/cultures in other ways (not-self reported) we find similar results (cultural differences in acceptability, relatively equal self-esteem across all humans)
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63
Q

What is the sociometer theory (Lary&Baumeister)?

A
  • ongoing thermometer of our level of acceptance or rejection by the group
  • to make sure we are part of a group
  • to survive
  • evolutionary psychological perspective that proposes that state self-esteem is a gauge of interpersonal relationships
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64
Q

What are actual, ought, ideal self?

A

actual self: a representation of the traits/attributes that you believe you actually possess.

ought self: traits that would help you meet duties and responsibilities (traits tahta you think you should have, society thinks that you should have)

ideal self: traits that would help you meet your hopes, wishes and dreams (traits that you want to have)

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65
Q

What is the self discrepancy theory? Give examples. Who is the psychologist?

A

Higgins
- Discrepancy between both

actual self vs ought self –> guilt, shame
ex: your mom wants you to be a priest but you don’t

actual self vs ideal self —> disappointment, frustration, sadness
ex: your dream was to be a priest but you are not

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66
Q

How much do we think about ourselves? What is the study that tested this?

A
  • we dont think about ourselves that much
  • people wore beepers for a week and wrote down what they were thinking every time it beeped, 4700 recorded thoughts and 8% is about self

Csikszentmihalyi & Figurski 1982

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67
Q

True/False

When we do think about ourselves it tends to be positive

A

false

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68
Q

How do we cope with a bad feeling about ourselves. What are the two mechanisms? Give examples.

A
  1. Fix what we are feeling bad about
  2. Stop thinking about it (distracting ourselves
  • not always possible to fix easily (being poor, married t someone we dislike)
  • drug, alcohol, sexual overindulgence, binge-eating, suicide, TV are methods to “stop thinking about it” - Baumeister
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69
Q

What is self-presentation?

A

Enhancing the self to one self and to others

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70
Q

What is above average effect?

A

people see themselves as better than average on most positive dimensions (and things that they personally value)

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71
Q

What is the Dunning-Kruger effect?

A
  • Everyone tends to overestimate own abilities
  • but some do it more than others
  • participants with lowest scores on logic, humour, and grammar were the ones most likely to overestimate their own abilities
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72
Q

What is heuristic? Why does this happen?

A

mental shortcut - replace a tough question with an easier question to answer.
- partly self-serving bias, and partly self-focused thinking

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73
Q

What is implicit egotism?

A

we like stuff associated with the self. influences our major decisions
denise –> dentist
louise —> lives in St. Louis

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74
Q

What is self enhancement? What are the strategies?

A

4 strategies that humans employ to feel better about themselves:

  • self-serving cognitions
  • self-handicapping
  • BIRGing
  • Downward social comparison
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75
Q

What are self-serving cognitions? Give example

A
  • take credit for success, distance for failure
  • passes test –> I am smart
  • fails test –> prof sucks
  • INTRINSIC explanations for successes and EXTRINSIC explanations for failures
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76
Q

Why do we have self-serving cognitions? What are the problems with it?

A
  • to protect our self-esteem
  • only positive estimate od our future
  • people think that they will have higher GPAs, better jobs, etc.
  • People think that they have more control over their futures than they do
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77
Q

What is self-handicapping?

A
  • often make excuses for past performance
  • make excuses for future performance
  • behaviours that sabotage performance provide an excuse for failure
  • men –> not preparing, drugs/alcohol
  • women –> reporting stress, physical symptoms
78
Q

What are pros and cons of self-handicapping?

A
  • protects self-esteem with failure and enhances SE with success
  • increases risk of failure
79
Q

What is Basking In Reflected Glory?

A
  • cutting off reflected failure
  • we identify groups/teams/friends/siblings when they experience success, and distance with failure
  • we won, they lost
  • school sweatshirts after a win
80
Q

What is downward social comparisons?

A

comparing self to others important

  • often downward
  • 53% downward in hospital, 12% upward
  • the more often they compared the better they felt
81
Q

What is the face “pop-out” effect?

A
  • human faces really capture our attention

- see faces, attribute personality

82
Q

What is the Willis and Todorov experiment finding about person perception?

A

100ms seems to be the threshold for recognizing faces in a crowd

83
Q

What are the dimensions of person perception and what are the adjectives associated with them?

A
  • trustworthy: friendly, warm, carin
  • dominant: competent, strong, intelligent
  • attractive: youthful, healthy
84
Q

What is the overgeneralization hypothesis?

A

we infer personality characteristics based on similarity one’s appearance with learned associations
EX: babyfacedness, resting bitch face (emotion overgeneralization)
- upturned lips –> happy, friendly
- downturned lips –> mean, aggressive
- most of the time not accurate BUT does predict stuff so humans use it

85
Q

What does overgeneralization hypothesis predicts…?

A
  • dating decisions
  • elections (more feminine women more likely to win)
  • hiring
  • promotion
  • criminality
86
Q

How does appearance affect the way we think of the person?

A

we use others’ appearance to make inferences into their personality

  • bodies, clothes, faces
  • not often accurate because most humans do, appearance predicts outcome
87
Q

Give an example of an activity that we did to show that the context is also important in interpreting others as well.

A

Tennis players winning or losing the point

Aviezer, Trope, Todorov

88
Q

What are discrete (universal expressions)?

A

happy, sad, angry, disgust

89
Q

True/False

we are good at secondary emotions (contempt, pride, humility) “blends”

A

false

90
Q

What is the face in crowd effect?

A

since self-directed anger (with eye-gaze) indicates threat, important to detect (and avoid/respond) quickly

91
Q

What are the big 5 personality factors?

A
  • extraversion
  • conscientiousness
  • openness
  • agreeableness
  • emotional stability
92
Q

True/False

We are good at determining extraversion and openness as well as narcissism

A

True

93
Q

True/False

We are good on things like determining gay/straight

A

false

shaky accuracy

94
Q

True/False

we are bad at trustworthiness, friendliness, intelligence

A

true

95
Q

What is the attribution theory?

A

we observe and analyze others to explain their behavior (Heider)

a theory that supposes that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them.

96
Q

What are the inferences we can make on people based on attribution theory? Give an example

A
  1. Personal - INTRINSIC
  2. Situational - EXTRINSIC

Why did Mayweather punch McGregor?

  • because he is aggressive (intrinsic)
  • because he is a fighter (extrinsic)
97
Q

What is the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)? Give an example

A

AKA. Correspondance Bias

  • the tendency to overlook the impact of situation and attribute to someone’s action to his or her disposition

EX: we think that the Jeopardy presenter is smarter than he is bc he is presenting the questions and has the answers to every question but that doesn’t necessarily mean he knows all the answers to the questions

98
Q

Why does the FAE occur?

A
  • underestimate the power of situational factors
99
Q

What is the two step process of impression? What are the differences between the 2 steps?

A
  1. Form impression –> AUTOMATIC

2. Correct/Update impression —> TAKES EFFORT

100
Q

True/False

Social psychology shows that situation is MOSTLY responsible for majority of our actions

A

True

101
Q

Explain the attribution and reactions flow chart that we saw in class (hint. starts with a negative behavior)

A
  1. negative behavior (a man is rude at the grocery store to the cashier) —> dispositional attribution (this man is a hostile person) —> unfavourable reaction (i don’t like him)
  2. negative behavior (a man is rude at the grocery store to the cashier) —> situational attribution (the man is in a hurry to get home to his sick child) —> sympathetic reaction (i understand)
102
Q

What are the cultural differences in FAE? Give an example of a study

A
  • fish tank and describe

- NA described fish (intrinsic), East Asians described the things in the tank (extrinsic)

103
Q

What are the factors that affect perceiver?

A

so many individual differences

  • motivation
  • cognitive beliefs
  • current emotions
  • -> can change how we interpret information when forming impressions of others
104
Q

How does ones motivation affect the perception of people?

A
  • a perceivers goals/beliefs influence how others are perceived
  • not necessarily more accurately (smiles, signs of sexual interest more so for men, costly for women)
105
Q

Duchenne vs real smiles

A

they are different in the muscles used
real smiles use
zygomaticus (jaw), and orbitalocularis (eyes)

106
Q

True/False

Those who were socially rejected are more accurate in detecting real smiles.

A

True

107
Q

How does ones cognitive beliefs affect the perception of people?

A
  • believe in a just world, universal karma
  • poor people –> lazy, rich –> intelligent
  • FAE to the person, not the situations these people in
108
Q

How does ones current emotions affect the perception of people?

A
  • current mood can also shift our attributions
  • people given feedback about themselves made them
    (happy —> optimistic about the situation that they were later put in in comparison to sad) “benefit of the doubt”
109
Q

What is negativity bias?

A

The negativity bias, also known as the negativity effect, is the notion that, even when of equal intensity, things of a more negative nature have a greater effect on one’s psychological state and processes than neutral or positive things.

110
Q

What is the primacy effect?

A

Learning about some traits first influence how all subsequent traits are perceived (Asch)
- first impression matter, subsequent info less attended takes more to update impression

111
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

112
Q

What is the confirmatory hypothesis theory?

A

the tendency to ask only the questions that will lead to the expected answer.

113
Q

What is self-fulfilling prophecy? Give an example of a study that we discussed in class

A

A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback between belief and behavior.

ex: teachers were told that some kids were “bloomers” (all randomly assigned) and in the end those kids were performing better than other kids in the class

114
Q

Once impressions are formed, why is it harder to update them?

A
  • takes effort
  • confirmation bias
  • confirmatory hypothesis testing
  • self-fulfilling prophecy
115
Q

Define stereotype

A

Associations with groups of people

- no valence involved: can be positive, negative, or neutral

116
Q

Define prejudice

A

Judgements (negative) of groups of people

- valence involved: group X is bad

117
Q

Define discrimination

A

BEHAVIORS or differential treatment of groups of people

118
Q

What is ingroup? What is outgroup?

A

an ingroup is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. By contrast, an outgroup is a social group with which an individual does not identify.

119
Q

True/False Why?

racism is about race.

A

No

  • our ancestors did not encounter individuals of other “races”
  • hunter/gatherer societies (slow moving, mostly stayed in same area for many generations)
  • yet outsiders (mostly other tribes) still dangerous due to disease, steal resources, kill men and steal women)
  • appearance based signals “outsiderness” used to identify danger, otherness, trigger own group favouritism.
120
Q

True/False

we still use visual signals, like skin color, variation in appearance to determine outsiderness

A

true

121
Q

True/False Explain your answer

racism has a biological basis in what we think of race

A

true

  • race is a social construct
  • black in NA can be considered white in Brazil
  • SOCIAL thing, we use to slice up the world, and behave in functional ways
122
Q

Explain the Robber’s Cave experiment

A
  • Done by Sherif
  • summer camp for 22 11-12 year old boys with similar backgrounds
  • 3 phases to the experiment (ingroup formation, friction, integration)
  • ingroup formation: they are not aware of the other group, they are given names, symbols and flags to define identity
  • friction: they are aware of the other group, engage in competitive tasks, hostility breaks out
  • integration: hard to reduce hostility, superordinate goals ultimately worked and groups became friendly while working towards the same goal.
123
Q

What are the theories of intergroup conflict?

A

realistic conflict theory: direct competition between groups for resources breeds hostility

relative deprivation theory: ACTUAL/ABSOLUTE resources don’t matter. PERCEIVED resource DISPARITIES lead to conflict

124
Q

What is the realistic conflict theory?

A

The theory explains how intergroup hostility can arise as a result of conflicting goals and competition over limited resources, and it also offers an explanation for the feelings of prejudice and discrimination toward the outgroup that accompany the intergroup hostility.

125
Q

What is the social identity theory?

A

Social identity is the portion of an individual’s self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group.

126
Q

What is minimal group paradigm?

A

The minimal group paradigm is a methodology employed in social psychology. Although it may be used for a variety of purposes, it is most well known as a method for investigating the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between groups.

127
Q

What is ingroup favoritism?

A

In-group favoritism, sometimes known as in-group–out-group bias, in-group bias, or intergroup bias, is a pattern of favoring members of one’s in-group over out-group members.

128
Q

What is explicit prejudice?

A

a negative attitude against a specific social group that is consciously held, even if not expressed publicly.

129
Q

old-fashioned racism vs modern racism

A

old –> white people are smarter than black
modern –> discrimination against black doesn’t exist anymore in NA

the questions that are asked about racism on questionnaires changed overtime. Level of explicit prejudice decreased overtime.

130
Q

What is the IAT?

A

The implicit-association test (IAT) is a measure within social psychology designed to detect the strength of a person’s automatic association between mental representations of objects (concepts) in memory.

  • implicit bias
131
Q

What is implicit bias?

A

implicit bias refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner.

132
Q

What are the ways of measuring explicit and implicit bias?

A

explicit –> self-report

implicit –> based on reaction times, or means OTHER than self-report.

133
Q

What is social categorization?

A
  • easier to slice up people into groups

- OVERESTIMATE differences between groups and UNDERESTIMATE differences within groups.

134
Q

What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?

A

The out-group homogeneity effect is one’s perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members

ex: Asians look the same to whites

135
Q

What are stereotypes?

A

schemas –> ways of organizing information
stereotypes –> schemas for social groups

ex: Irish like potatoes

often lead to error when applying to individuals (American stereotype)

136
Q

Why do stereotypes persist so long?

A

confirmation bias

137
Q

What is subtyping? Give an example. Who is the psychologist who found it?

A

ALLPORT 1954

  • Subtyping occurs when perceivers respond to members of a target group who disconfirm their stereotypes by seeing them as exceptions to the rule and placing them in a separate subcategory apart from members who confirm the stereotype.
  • EX: women = kind, nurturing, warm, stay home, make babies
    Hillary Clinton = career-based woman
  1. update stereotype xxx
  2. make new subcategory “career women”
138
Q

What are intrinsic and extrinsic explanations of stereotypes. Give example

A
  • stereotyping confirmation behavior –> intrinsic explanation (he liked potatoes bc he is Irish)
  • stereotyping disconfirmation behavior –> extrinsic explanation (stereoptype endures)
139
Q

What is the role of self-fullfilling prophecy in stereotypes?

A

expectations that cme from stereotypes can shape people’s real world outcomes

140
Q

Where do stereotypes come from?

A
  • stereotypes are learned

- can convey positive norms as well (RWANDA intergroup conflict podcast reduced the problems)

141
Q

What is the stereotype content model?

A

The model is based on the notion that people are evolutionarily predisposed to first assess a stranger’s intent to either harm or help them (warmth dimension) and second to judge the stranger’s capacity to act on that perceived intention (competence dimension).

  • 4 dimensions
  • it is powerful bc if we know these 2 pieces of information about those groups then we can predict the way individuals will respond to them.
142
Q

Can we stop stereotype activation?

A
  • No, activation is automatic in our environment
  • BUT we CAN control whether we are going to act on them or not.
  • Motivation to suppress prejudice/stereotypes
  • -> internal: egalitarian
  • -> external: don’t want to look prejudiced
143
Q

What is outgroup derogation?

A

Discrimination between ingroups and outgroups is a matter of favoritism towards an ingroup and the absence of equivalent favoritism towards an outgroup. Outgroup derogation is the phenomenon in which an outgroup is perceived as being threatening to the members of an ingroup.

144
Q

When do biases manifest? Give an example of a study

A

for most people, bias manifests in ambiguous situation in which tere is no clear norm or social script

EX: mechanics phone call experiment

  • whites helped black equally as white if they listened long enough
  • BUT hung up on black callers earlier before they could ask for help
145
Q

What is the theory of modern or aversive racism?

A

negative evaluations of racial/ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism is characterized by more complex, ambivalent expressions and attitudes.

  • most people have egalitarian ideals, but will act prejudiced when safe, socially acceptable, or when situation is ambiguous so that you can attribute behaviours to something other than racism
  • potentially driven more by slightly anxiety or uncomfortability rather than hatred.
146
Q

True/False

Interracial interaction are easier than we think.

A

False

interracial interactions can be mentally exhausting because people self-monitor to avoid appearing prejudiced
- also try to avoid these interactions due to this fear/anxiety

147
Q

What is sexism?

A

prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex.

148
Q

What is ambivalent sexism? (Glick and Fiske)

A

Ambivalent sexism is a theoretical framework which posits that sexism has two sub-components: “hostile sexism” and “benevolent sexism”.

149
Q

What is hostile sexism?

A

Hostile sexism reflects overtly negative evaluations and stereotypes about a gender (e.g., the ideas that women are incompetent and inferior to men).

150
Q

What is benevolent sexism?

A

Benevolent sexism represents evaluations of gender that may appear subjectively positive (subjective to the person who is evaluating), but are actually damaging to people and gender equality more broadly (e.g., the ideas that women need to be protected by men).

151
Q

What is the study that studied ambivalent sexism?

A

Maternity leave policy

  • women who were exposed to hostile sexism reported more likely to protest the policy
  • the benevolent sexism reported less protest compared to the control group.
152
Q

What is the glass cliff phenomenon? Ryan and Hasiam

A

The glass cliff is the phenomenon of women in leadership roles, such as executives in the corporate world and female political election candidates, being likelier than men to achieve leadership roles during periods of crisis or downturn, when the chance of failure is highest.

153
Q

What are the consequences of stereotyping?

A 
stereotype threat (Steele): fear of acting in a manner consistent with stereotypes
- received a lot of attention in education (black less intelligent, women not good at math)
154
Q

True/False Explain with an experiment

When people are reminded of social category and stereotype prior to test, they perform worse

A

True

asian women
asian –> good at math –> did good on test
women —> women bad at math –> did worse on test

155
Q

How does stereotype threat work?

A
  • increases anxiety/physiological arousal, interfering thinking, coordination
  • stereotype thought suppression
  • focus on avoiding failure rather than pursuing success
156
Q

How can stereotypes be fixed?

A

contact hypothesis (ALLPORT)

157
Q

What is the contact hypothesis?

A

the contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can effectively reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.

158
Q

What doesn’t work when fixing stereotypes?

A

implicit bias training

159
Q

Define self-esteem and prejudice in terms of attitude

A

self-esteem: attitudes toward self

prejudice: attitudes towards others

160
Q

What is attitude?

A

a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person.

161
Q

Why do we have attitudes?

A

Cognitive heuristic: are simple, efficient rules which people often use to form judgments and make decisions.

162
Q

How to measure attitudes? Pros and cons

A
  • self-report (pros: simple, cons: can lie, questions might be too simple to capture data
  • bogus pipeline: is a fake polygraph used to get participants to truthfully respond to emotional/affective questions in survey
  • indirect measures: less controllable IAT, reaction time, facial expressions, tone of voice, body language. Pros: directly compliments the weaknesses or self-reported measures. Cons: less control, there can be confounding variable
163
Q

How do we form attitudes?

A

Nurture (environment)
- attitudes change a lot during uni, when people are exposed to different norms than family/hometown

Nature (genetics)

  • some things: conservatism to liberalism, sexual promiscuity, religiosity
  • twin studies: examine identical twins raised in same vs different homes

Politics
- individuals who are more reactive to negative stimuli:

164
Q

True/False

Attitudes match behaviours all the time.

A

no sometimes there is a disconnect

165
Q

What is the study that showed that there is a disconnect between attitudes and behviours?

A

LaPiere

  • road trip with Chinese-American couple around the US
  • Asian prejudice high at time
  • 250 restaurants only 1 rejected
  • wrote letter and asked if they would accept Chinese patrons (90% said no)
166
Q

What is the theory of planned behaviour? Explain

A

the theory of planned behavior is a theory that links one’s beliefs and behavior. The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual’s behavioral intentions and behaviors.

  • attitude
  • subjective norm
  • perceived behavioural control
167
Q

What is the subjective norm in theory of planned behaviour?

A

what is the norm in the environment that you are in

168
Q

What is the perceived behavioural control in theory of planned behaviour?

A

why you think you can control the behavior in the first place

169
Q

Attitudes are strongest when:

A
  • affect own outcomes/interest
  • related to deeply held philosophical/moral/religious values
  • of concern to family/ingroup
170
Q

Strong attitudes predict behvior when:

A
  • people well-informed (or think they are)
  • when attitudes are from personal experience rather than learned
  • after resisting some sort of attack on attitude
171
Q

How fo attitudes help influence behavior?

A

getting people to think of their identities help attitudes influence bahaviour
IV: participants asked
- how important is it for you to be a voter in the upcoming election? (noun condition)
- how important is it for you to vote in the upcoming election (verb condition)
DV: based on state records, who actually ended up voting?

noun condition > verb conditions

172
Q

When do attitudes predict behavior?

A

Attitude determine behavior under specific circumstances

  • social influences on attitudes are minimized
  • other influences on behvior minimized
  • attitude corresponds closely to behvior
  • attitude is salient
173
Q

True/False

The more abstract the attitude the weaker the connection between the behavior and the attitude

A

true

174
Q

What is the mere exposure effect?

A

The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.

EX: women sitting in class and the more students in class the more liked she was

175
Q

What are the routes to persuasion?

A

Central: people being influenced by strength and quality of arguements

Peripheral: when influenced by other, non-central cues

176
Q

Explain the central route of persuasion

A
  • when people are motivated to think carefully about the issues (this might be rare)
  • most effective when make strong arguments
  • weak arguments will backfire, people will counterargue
177
Q

Explain the peripheral route of persuasion

A
  • when people are not motivated, or are distracted or busy
  • most effective when include cues that people use to make decisions without a lot of thought
  • associating the product with cool and attractive people
178
Q

What are the 3 factors of any message to be considered?

A
  • source
  • message elements
  • audience
179
Q

How to be perceived as a credible source?

A

credibility

  • competence and trustworthiness
    ex: birth-x

attractiveness

180
Q

What are the routes to persuasion?

A

Central: people being influenced by strength and quality of arguements

Peripheral: when influenced by other, non-central cues

181
Q

Explain the central route of persuasion

A
  • when people are motivated to think carefully about the issues (this might be rare)
  • most effective when make strong arguments
  • weak arguments will backfire, people will counterargue
182
Q

Explain the peripheral route of persuasion

A
  • when people are not motivated, or are distracted or busy
  • most effective when include cues that people use to make decisions without a lot of thought
  • associating the product with cool and attractive people
183
Q

What are the 3 factors of any message to be considered?

A
  • source
  • message elements
  • audience
184
Q

How to be perceived as a credible source?

A

credibility

  • competence and trustworthiness
    ex: birth-x

attractiveness and liking

  • physical attractiveness
  • similarities
    ex: no meat petition
185
Q

What is the sleeper effect?

A

you forget the details and you don’t remember all the reasons behind your decisions. The message has a greater impact later on

186
Q

True/False

Fear is an effective was to persuade people

A

true

ex: cancer pictures on cigarettes

187
Q

What are the aspects of message content in persuasion?

A

big discrepancy
- exercise 60 min a day works best if the source is credible

small discrepancy
- exercise once or twice a week works if it is not credible source

one sided appeal vs two sided appeal

  • one side is only mentioning pros (if audience agrees and has no cons then this is the best way)
  • two sided addresses cons too, if the audience already opposes the message two sided works better

primacy vs recency

  • primacy information presented early has more influence
  • information presented last can sometimes overwrite information that comes first
188
Q

one sided appeal vs two sided appeal

A
  • one side is only mentioning pros (if audience agrees and has no cons then this is the best way)
  • two sided addresses cons too, if the audience already opposes the message two sided works better
189
Q

primacy vs recency

A
  • primacy information presented early has more influence

- information presented last can sometimes overwrite information that comes first

190
Q

How to construct a persuasive message

A
  • make people feel good vs make them feel scared
  • big vs small discrepancy
  • one sided vs two sided appeal
  • primacy vs recency effect
191
Q

What is the Standford prison experiment?

A

In the study, volunteers were randomly assigned to be either “guards” or “prisoners” in a mock prison, with Zimbardo himself serving as the superintendent. Several “prisoners” left mid-experiment, and the whole experiment was abandoned after six days. Early reports on experimental results claimed that students quickly embraced their assigned roles, with some guards enforcing authoritarian measures and ultimately subjecting some prisoners to psychological torture, while many prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and, by the officers’ request, actively harassed other prisoners who tried to stop it.

192
Q

What is cognitive dissonance?

A

Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance.

8) Social Psychology (6 decks)

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