Midterm Exam Flashcards
The study of the relationship between organisms and their environment
Ecology
Other terms for ecology
Bioecology
Bionomics
Environmental Biology
Who coined the term ecology?
Ernst Haeckel
What does oekologie mean?
Relation of the animal to its organic and inorganic environment
Where does the word ecology come from?
Greek word oikos, meaning household, home, or place to live
Who first described the interrelationships between organisms and their nonliving environment?
Theophrastus
Who called attention to the conflict between expanding populations and food supply?
Thomas Malthus
What is Malthusianism?
States that population growth will always tend to outrun food supply and that betterment of humankind is impossible without stern limits on reproduction
They applied mathematical foundations for the study of populations and did experiments on the interactions of organisms
Raymond Pearl
Alfred Lotka
Vito Volterra
Who is the father of biogerontology?
Raymond Pearl
Who (2) developed the prey-predator model?
Alfred Lotka
Vito Volterra
The study of the biological bases of ageing and age-related diseases
Biogerontology
Who (2) developed the concept of animal behavior (ethology)?
Konrad Lorenz
Nikolaas Tinbergen
When did Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen win a Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine?
1973
Who conceptualized imprinting?
Konrad Lorenz
It is the bond formed between a newborn animal and its caregiver
Imprinting
Who studied group selection and the role of social behaviors in population regulation through epideictic displays?
Vero Wynne-Edwards
It is natural selection at the level of groups
Group Selection
Who introduced the concept of trophic levels and how energy is transferred from producers to consumers?
August Thienemann
It is an organism’s number of steps from the start of the food chain
Trophic Level
Who developed the food chain and food web concepts, the concept of ecological niches, and pyramids of numbers?
Charles Elton
Who (2) measured the energy budget of lakes, developed the idea of primary productivity, and limnology?
Edward Birge
Chancey Juday
It is the uptake of energy from the environment versus its use for various purposes
Energy Budget
It is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems
Limnology
Who developed the trophic-dynamic concept of ecology?
Raymond Lindeman
What is Lindeman’s 10% Law?
States that only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to another
Who (2) quantified field studies of energy flow through ecosystems?
Eugene Odum
Howard Odum
Who is the father of modern ecology?
Eugene Odum
Who defined ecology as “any unit that includes all of the organisms in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to exchanges of materials between living and nonliving parts of the system”?
Eugene Odum
Who studied the nutrient cycle?
J.D. Ovington
It is a system where energy and matter are transferred between living and nonliving components of the ecosystem
Nutrient Cycle
Enumerate the (8) ecological hierarchies
Individual
Population
Interactions
Community
Ecosystem
Landscape
Region
Biosphere
It is the study of how individuals survive in their environment, especially in extreme conditions
Physiological Ecology
It is the study of factors that drive adaptations such as hunting and avoiding enemies
Behavioral Ecology
It is the study of environmental factors that drive species adaptations such as camouflage genes to avoid predators
Evolutionary Ecology
It is the study of a single species, also known as autecology
Population Ecology
It is the study of the evolutionary effects of interactions on population structure or on properties of ecological communities
Ecology of Interactions
It is the study of the subsets of organisms and what ecological factors determine how many species are present in an area, also known as synecology
Community Ecology
It is the study of large-scale ecological issues such as biomass, energy flow, and nutrient cycling
Ecosystem Ecology
It is the study of landscape structures and processes
Landscape Ecology
It is the study of factors and prevention of species extinction
Conservation Ecology
It is the study of factors and prevention of species extinction
Conservation Ecology
It is the study of the biosphere
Geographic Ecology
It is an interdisciplinary study of the ecology of the Earth’s atmosphere boundary
Aeroecology
It is the study of urban areas as complex, dynamic ecological systems
Urban Ecology
What (4) causes the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface?
Spherical shape
23.5 degrees tilt on its axis
Latitudes
Seasons
It is a period when the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun
Northern Summer
It is a period when the sun is directly overhead the tropic of Cancer
Northern Summer Solstice
(June 21)
It is a period when the sun is directly overhead the tropic of Capricorn
Northern Winter Solstice
(December 21)
It is a period when the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun
Northern Winter
Is it a period when both hemispheres receive equal amounts of solar radiation
Equinox
When is the spring equinox?
March 21
When is the autumnal equinox?
September 22 or 23
What are the 4 prevailing winds?
Northeast Trades
Southeast Trades
Westerlies
Polar Easterlies
It is a phenomenon responsible for wind deflection and why prevailing winds do not move in a straight north-south direction
Coriolis Effect
It is the study of how organisms in a particular area are influenced by various factors
Natural History
It is an approach that seeks to preserve tropical dry forests for its own sake for for human benefits
Biocultural Restoration
It is distinguished primarily be its predominant plants and climate
Terrestrial Biome
It is one of the most significant aspects of soil structure, observed by digging a 1- to 3-meter soil pit
Vertical Layering
It is the topmost, superficial soil layer composed of fresh organic matter
O Horizon
It is a soil layer that contains a mixture of mineral materials and organic materials
A Horizon
It is a soil layer with a distinct color and banding pattern and occupied by most plant roots
B Horizon
It is the deepest soil layer consisting of weathered parent material
C Horizon
What are the 5 factors that influence soil structure?
Hans Jenny, 1980:
- Climate
- Organisms
- Topography
- Parent Material
- Time
It is a term for geologic material from which soil horizons form
Parent Material
Terrestrial Biome
-10 latitude
- Warm and wet year-round
- Average temperature of 25-27C
- Annual rainfall of 2000-4000mm
Tropical Rain Forest
Terrestrial Biome
- Nutrient leaching
- Rapid decomposition, low organic matter
- Nutrient-poor and acidic
- Mycorrhizae
Tropical Rain Forest
Terrestrial Biome
- Trees provide vertical dimension
- Trees often supported by buttresses
- Complex relationships between species
Tropical Rain Forest
It is a symbiotic relationship of fungi and tree roots
Mycorrhizae
Terrestrial Biome
What are the 4 vertical dimensions of trees and their heights?
Undergrowth (5m)
Understory (17m)
Canopy (29m)
Emergent Layer (38m)
Terrestrial Biome
Human Influences
- Source of staple foods
- Source of 25% of all prescription drugs
- Fast disappearing
Tropical Rain Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Geography & Climate
- 10-25 latitude
- More seasonal
- 6-7 months dry
- 5-6 months rainfall
Tropical Dry Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Soil
- Of great age
- Less acidic but vulnerable to erosion
- Richer in nutrients
Tropical Dry Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Biology
- Plants strongly influenced by physical factors
- Tree height correlated with precipitation
- Seeds dispersed by wind and animals
- Seasonal migrations of animals
Tropical Dry Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Human Influences
- Heavy settling
- Agricultural developments
- Decrease in biodiversity
Tropical Dry Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Geography & Climate
- 10-20 latitude
- Alternating dry and wet seasons
- Drought combines with fire
- Rain combines with lightning
Tropical Savanna
Terrestrial Biome
Soil
- Low water permeability
- Water retained near surface
- Waterlogged during wet season
Tropical Savanna
Terrestrial Biome
Biology
- Occurs mostly near ground level
- Fire-resistant flora
- Wandering animals
Tropical Savanna
Terrestrial Biome
Human Influences
- First observations of fire
- Hunting and gathering
- Pastoralism and livestock ranching
- Sahel: A region in Africa devastated by human populations, livestock, and drought
Tropical Savanna
Terrestrial Biome
Geography & Climate
- 30 latitude
- 20% of Earth’s landmass
- Evaporation and transpiration exceeds precipitation
- Drought conditions prevail
Desert
Terrestrial Biome
Soil
- Often considered lithosols due to low organic matter
- Islands of fertility under shrubs
- High salt content which increases aridity
Desert
Terrestrial Biome
It is a term used for calcium carbonate-rich hardpan horizon
Caliche
Terrestrial Biome
Biology
- Little to no plants
- Plants have dense hairs for protection
- Small leaves
- Dormant seeds
- Low animal abundance, high diversity
Desert
Terrestrial Biome
Human Influences
- Concentrated near oases and river valleys
- Salt accumulation
- Increasing in area
Desert
Terrestrial Biome
Geography & Climate
- 30-40 latitude
- Found in all continents but Antarctica
- Cool and moist except in spring
- Hot, dry summer
- Possible mild frost
Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland
Terrestrial Biome
Another term for MW&S in Western North America
Chaparral
Terrestrial Biome
Another term for MW&S in Spain
Matorral
Terrestrial Biome
Another term for MW&S in Mediterranean Basin
Garrigue
Terrestrial Biome
Another term for MW&S in South Africa
Fynbos
Terrestrial Biome
Another term for MW&S in Australia
Mallee
Terrestrial Biome
Soil
- Low to moderate fertility and fragile
- Severe soil erosion
- Stripped due to fires and overgrazing
Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland
Terrestrial Biome
Biology
- Highly diverse with adaptations to drought
- Evergreen trees and shrubs rich in oil
- Symbiotic microbes fix nitrogen from the air
- Fire-resistant plants
Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland
Terrestrial Biome
Human Influences
- Wheat plantations once every 5-6 years
- Low-intensity cultivation and long-term stability
- Deforestation and intentional fires
- Human habitations
Mediterranean Woodland and Shrubland
Terrestrial Biome
Geography & Climate
- 30-55 latitude
- Largest biome in N. America
- 300-1000mm annual rainfall
- Droughts may last several years
- Cold winters, hot summers
Temperate Grasslands
Terrestrial Biome
Another term for temperate grasslands in America
Prairie
Terrestrial Biome
Another term for temperate grasslands in Eurasia
Steppe
Terrestrial Biome
Soil
- Wide variety of parent materials
- Deep, basic, fertile, high organic matter
Temperate Grasslands
Terrestrial Biome
Biology
- Herbaceous vegetation
- Plants limited near rivers and streams
- Roving herbivores
Temperate Grasslands
Terrestrial Biome
Human Influences
- Nomadic hunters > nomadic herders > farmers
- Most fertile farmlands on Earth
- Lost 35-40% of organic matter
Temperate Grasslands
Terrestrial Biome
Geography & Climate
- 30-55 latitude, but mostly between 40-50 latitude
- Annual rainfall of 50-3000mm
- All seasons present
Temperate Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Soil
- Fertile
- Deciduous forests very fertile
- Coniferous forests can grow in poorer soils
Temperate Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Biology
- May be coniferous or deciduous
- Vertically stratified
- Fungi and bacteria the most important consumers
Temperate Forest
Terrestrial Biome
What are the 4 vertical stratifications in temperate forests?
- Herb Layer
- Shrub Layer
- Shade-Tolerant Understory Trees
- Canopy
Terrestrial Biome
Human Influences
- First concentrated along forest margins
- Agricultural developments
- Remaining 1-2% old-growth forests in Western N. America
Temperate Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Geography & Climate
- 50-65 latitude
- Long winters, short summers
- Annual rainfall of 200-600mm
- Low evaporation, infrequent droughts
Boreal Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Greek word for north
Boreal
Terrestrial Biome
Soil
- Low fertility, thin, acidic
- Slow decomposition and soil building
- Shallow tree roots with mycorrhizae
- Thin topsoil, permafrost subsoil
Boreal Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Biology
- Evergreen conifers
- Willows along rivers and lakes
- Aspen in deciduous, birch in coniferous
- Migratory mammals
- Wolves the major predators
- Epiphytes
- Trees pollinated by wind
Boreal Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Human Influences
- Ancient cave paintings
- Eurasia: Reindeer hunting turned to domestication
- N. Canada & Alaska: Wild caribou as food
- Light human intrusion
Boreal Forest
Terrestrial Biome
Geography & Climate
- 66.5 latitude
- Cold and dry
- Long winters, short summers
- Annual rainfall of <200mm to >600mm
- Precipitation exceeds evaporation
Tundra
Terrestrial Biome
Soil
- Slow decomposition and soil building
- Freezing and thawing of soil
- Solifluction
Tundra
Terrestrial Biome
It is the downslope movement of soil
Solifluction
Terrestrial Biome
Biology
- Large native mammals
Tundra
Terrestrial Biome
Human Influences
- Limited to small groups
- One of the last pristine areas of Earth
- Increase in human intrusion
- Increased oil exploration and extraction
- Radiation fallout
Tundra
Aquatic Environments
What are the 3 major oceans?
Pacific Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Aquatic Environments
What is the deepest point of the ocean?
Challenger Deep
11035 meters
Aquatic Environments
What are the 3 horizontal zones of the ocean?
Littoral Zone
Neritic Zone
Oceanic Zone
Aquatic Environments
What are the 5 vertical zones of the ocean?
Epipelagic Zone
Mesopelagic Zone
Bathypelagic Zone
Abyssopelagic Zone
Hadalpelagic Zone
Aquatic Environments
What are the 3 zones of the ocean according to light availability?
Euphotic Zone
Dysphotic Zone
Aphotic Zone
Aquatic Environments
It is a term for the temperature profile of the ocean where temperature decreases with depth
Thermocline
Aquatic Environments
It occurs when warm and cold waters mix through currents, winds, and tides
Thermal Stratification
Aquatic Environments
It occurs when winds displace surface water, bringing cool water from the deep to the surface
Upwelling
Aquatic Environments
It is a rotating oceanic current
Gyre
Aquatic Environments
How many phyla and endemic phyla are in the ocean?
28 phyla
13 endemic
Aquatic Environments
Found in temperate regions in shallow waters
Kelp Forests
Aquatic Environments
What are the 4 basic structures of kelp?
Blade
Air Bladder
Stipe
Holdfast
Aquatic Environments
What are the 5 structures of a kelp forest
Encrusting
Understory
Water Column
Epiphytes
Canopy
Aquatic Environments
Grows ideally in less than 10C
Kelp Forests
Aquatic Environments
Found in tropical regions in shallow waters
Coral Gardens
Aquatic Environments
What are the 3 categories of reefs?
Charles Darwin:
- Fringing
- Barrier
- Atoll
Aquatic Environments
What are the 3 structural habitats of reefs?
Reef Flat Zone
Reef Crest
Buttress Zone
Aquatic Environments
Grows ideally in 18C-20C
Coral Gardens
Aquatic Environments
Crown of Thorns
Coral predators
Acanthaster planci
Aquatic Environments
Sea urchin
Coral predators
Diadema antillarum
Aquatic Environments
Algae with relationship with corals, giving it a green color, and an indicator of good health
Zooxanthellae
Aquatic Environments
This occurs to corals due to high temperature and salinity
Coral Bleaching
Aquatic Environments
May be exposed, sheltered, rocky, or sandy
Marine Shores
Aquatic Environments
What are the 5 vertical zones of marine shores?
Splash Zone
Upper Intertidal Zone
Middle Intertidal Zone
Lower Intertidal Zone
Subtidal Zone
Aquatic Environments
It is a tide that occurs when the sun and moon are aligned in a straight line
Spring Tide
Aquatic Environments
It is a tide that occurs when the sun and moon are aligned perpendicularly
Neap Tide
Aquatic Environments
It is a tide with one low and one high tide per day
Diurnal Tide
Aquatic Environments
It is a tide with two low and two high tides per day
Semidiurnal Tide
Aquatic Environments
What are the organisms found in marine shores zonation of species?
Splash Zone: Attached to stones
Intertidal Zone: Anemones, shellfish
Subtidal Zone: Kelp, seaweed, sea grass
Aquatic Environments
Transitional environments where rivers or streams meet the ocean
Estuaries
Aquatic Environments
Transitional environments constantly flood and drained by saltwater
Salt Marshes
Aquatic Environments
What are the 7 structures of salt marshes?
Tidal Creek
Levee
Low Marsh
High Marsh
Marsh Border
Transitional Communities
Maritime Climax Forest
Aquatic Environments
Transitional environments with trees that can tolerate saltwater
Mangrove Forests
Aquatic Environments
Transitional environments along boundaries of freshwater sources
Freshwater Wetlands
Aquatic Environments
It is the area where all river networks drain
River Basin
Aquatic Environments
Is is a high point that separate river basins
Watershed
Aquatic Environments
It is a river/stream structure that transitions to land
Riparian Zone
Aquatic Environments
What are the 4 vertical zones of rivers and streams?
Water Table
River Channel
Hyporheic Zone
Groundwater
Aquatic Environments
What are the 5 lakes in the Great Lakes?
Superior
Michigan
Huron
Erie
Ontario
Aquatic Environments
What is the deepest lake in the world?
Lake Baikal
1600 meters
Aquatic Environments
What is the second deepest lake in the world?
Lake Tanganyika
1470 meters
Aquatic Environments
It is a term for a concentration of lakes
Lake District
Aquatic Environments
What are the 2 horizontal zones of lakes?
Littoral Zone
Limnetic Zone
Aquatic Environments
What are the 3 vertical zones of lakes?
Epilimnion
Metalimnion
Hypolimnion
Aquatic Environments
A lake color with high nutrients and primary production, often shallow
Deep Green
Aquatic Environments
A lake color with acidic water caused by leaching of forest soils
Yellow Brown
Aquatic Environments
A lake color with low nutrients and bio activities, often deep
Blue
Aquatic Environments
A young lake with little no landfill, low bio production, and high oxygen
Oligotrophic
Aquatic Environments
A middle-aged lake with moderate landfill, moderate bio production, and decent oxygen
Mesotrophic
Aquatic Environments
An old lake with significant landfill, high bio production, and low oxygen
Eutrophic
Aquatic Environments
It occurs due to bio activity being inversely correlated to oxygen content
Eutrophication
It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a mass of a substance
Temperature
It is the kinetic energy in a mass of a substance
Heat
It is the climatic condition of a large scale area, usually represented by climate diagrams
Macroclimate
It is the climatic variation on a small scale area
Microclimate
What are the 5 factors that affect microclimate?
Altitude
Aspect
Vegetation
Ground Color
Boulders & Burrows
It is the short-term physiological adjustment that is reversible with change in environmental conditions
Acclimation
An example of organism with a great capacity to acclimate to high temperatures
Atriplex lentiformis
Organisms that thrive in high temperatures as high as 80C and above; give example
Thermophiles
Sulfolobus
Organisms that do not regulate their own body temperature but instead rely directly on environmental temperature
Poikilotherms
Organisms that rely mostly on external sources of energy for temperature regulation
Ectotherms
Organisms that heavily rely on internally derived metabolic heat energy for temperature regulation
Endotherms
Organisms that use metabolic energy to maintain a relatively constant body temperature
Homeotherms
How do desert plants avoid heating?
- Decrease heating by conduction
- Increase rates of convective cooling
- Reduce rates of radiative heating
A desert plant that has leaf hairs and can cool its leaves to survive in high temperature environments
Encelia farinosa
How do arctic and alpine plants regulate temperature?
- Increase rates of radiative heating
- Decrease rates of convective cooling
An arctic plant that can increase rates of radiative heating
Dryas integrifolia
An ectothermic animal that basks in the sun to warm its body or seeks shade to cool down
Sceloporus undulatus
An ectothermic animal that orients its body perpendicular to the sun’s rays to heat itself up
Camnula pellucida
It is the range of environmental temperature at which the metabolic rate of a homeothermic animal does not change
Thermal Neutral Zone
How much can water absorb heat energy without changing temperature as compared to air?
3000 times
How much can water cause conductive and convective heat loss in still water and moving water?
20 times
100 times
These are vascular structures that reduce the rate of heat loss to the surrounding environment
Countercurrent Heat Exchangers
A flying insect with warming flight muscles
Manduca sexta
A thermogenic plant that can produce its own internal heat while its flowers enclose around itself to conserve heat
Symplocarpus foetidus
An animal that stays still and stands as tall as it can to avoid heating up on hot surfaces
Neocicindela perhispida campbelli
It is a state of low metabolic rate and lowered body temperature
Torpor
An example of an animal that hibernates
Cheirogaleus medius
It is the capacity of water to do work
Water Potential
It is a consequence of water’s tendency to adhere to the walls of containers
Matric Forces
An animal that digs canals downslope to direct water to itself
Lepidochora
An animal that stands in a bent position to direct moisture to its mouth
Onymacris unguicularis
An animal that utilizes metabolic water from the breakdown of food
Dipodomys
A plant with deep roots for acquiring more water
Artemisia frigida
A plant with stolon for water acquisition
Digitaria adscendens
A plant that wilts to conserve water
Piper auritum
It is a way for sharks and some animals to excrete excess salts
Salt Gland
What is the composition of shark blood?
33% inorganic ions
67% urea and TMAO
How do marine bony fish regulate water?
- Drinks ample water
- Excretes ions through gills
- Loses water through skin
- Excretes concentrated urine
How do marine bony fish eliminate excess salts?
- Chloride cells that secrete salts directly to the surrounding water
- Kidneys
How do freshwater bony fish regulate water?
- Drinks little water
- Actively takes up ions through gills
- Absorbs water through skin
- Excretes dilute urine
How do freshwater bony fish replace salts?
- Chloride cells that absorb salts from the surrounding water
- Eating
These are the raw materials an organism must acquire from the environment to live
Nutrients
Organisms that utilize carbon dioxide and light to synthesize organic compounds
Photosynthetic Autotrophs
Organisms that utilize carbon dioxide and inorganic chemicals as their source of energy
Chemosynthetic Autotrophs
Organisms that utilize organic molecules as their source of carbon and energy
Heterotrophs
What are the 2 types of sulfur oxidizers living near geothermal vents?
- Free-living
- Living within invertebrate tissues
It is the most common alternative photosynthetic pathway
C3
What is produced in C3 photosynthesis?
Phosphoglyceric Acid
It separates carbon fixation and the Calvin Cycle in different cells
C4
What is produced in C4 photosynthesis?
Oxaloacetate
It is common in succulent plants in arid environments and among epiphytes in forest canopies
CAM
It separates carbon fixation and the Calvin Cycle in different times of the day
CAM
What are 2 problems in nutrition among herbivores?
- Must compensate for large differences in nutrient content of food and the requirements for growth and metabolism
- Must overcome physical and chemical defenses of plants
What do carnivores do to select their prey according to size?
Size-Selective Predation
These are the decomposers of the environment
Detritivores
What are the 3 physical defenses of plants against herbivores?
Thorns
Abrasive Silica
Toughened Tissues
What are the 2 chemical defenses of plants against herbivores?
Toxins
Digestion-reducing substances
What are the 6 animal defenses against predators?
Camouflage
Anatomical Defenses
Behavioral Defenses
Aposematic Colors
Mullerian Mimicry
Batesian Mimicry
An animal that is white and easily spotted by predatory birds
Biston betularia typica
An animal that is black and blends with dark tree barks, hiding against predatory birds
Biston betularia carbonaria
It is a form of mimicry among noxious species wherein they copy each other
Mullerian Mimicry
It is a form of mimicry among harmless species wherein they copy noxious organisms
Batesian Mimicry
The study of social relations
Sociobiology
It is the number of offspring or genes contributed by an individual to future generations
Fitness
It is a concept proposing that an individual’s overall fitness is determined by its relatives’ and its own survival and reproduction
Inclusive Fitness
Organisms with both male and female functions
Hermaphrodites
An example of a plant that may possess male, female, or both sex organs
Carica papaya
These are characteristics not directly involved in the process of reproduction
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
It is a process that results from differences in reproductive rates among individuals as a result of differences in their mating success
Sexual Selection
Sexual selection wherein individuals of one sex compete among themselves for a mate
Intrasexual Selection
Sexual selection wherein individuals of one sex choose mates among members of the opposite sex on the basis of some particular trait
Intersexual Selection
An example of birds that show intersexual selection
Paradisaeidae
An example of animal that shows intersexual selection based on its ability to provide resources to its mate
Panorpa
It is a condition where plants cannot self-pollinate
Self-Incompatibility
It involves exchanges of resources between individuals or various forms of assistance
Cooperation
This begins with group living and cooperation
Sociality
It is the evolutionary force favoring helping relatives
Kin Selection
It is the place from which an organism is raised
Natal Territory
An example of birds that show philopatry
Green woodhoopoes
It is the total number of offspring produced over the course of a lifetime
Lifetime Reproductive Success
It is a highly complex, stratified social behavior
Eusociality
What are the 3 indications of eusociality?
- Individuals on more than one generation living together
- Cooperative care of the young
- Division of individuals into castes
2 examples of animals that exhibit castes
Atta sexdens
Heterocephalus glaber
What are the 4 mangrove species in increasing order of their exposure to brackish water
Conocarpus erectus
Avicennia germinans
Laguncularia racemosa
Rhizophora mangle
