MIDTERM Flashcards
Structuralism
Used INTROSPECTION to determine underlying STRUCTURES of the mind
Introspection
Act of looking INWARD to examine mental experience
Functionalism
Analyzing the PURPOSE of behavior
Psychodynamic approach
We are motivated by irrational desires. Freud: behavior comes from UNCONSCIOUS drive
Behavioral approach
Actions are caused by LEARNED behaviors that have been REINFORCED
Humanistic approach
Emphasizes FREE WILL and ACTUALIZATION
Cognitive approach
Behaviors are a result of the way we PERCEIVE and THINK about information
Biological approach
Operation of our brain and neurotransmitters influence behavior
Sociocultural approach
Emphasizes importance of SOCIAL INTERACTION
Evolutionary Approach
Behavior and mental processes are seen in terms of GENETICS
Biopsychosocial
Emphasizes interconnection between biological, psychological, and socio-environmental factors
Mary Calkins
First female president of APA
Margaret Floy Washburn
1st female PhD
William James
Father of AMERICAN Psychology
FUNCTIONALIST
Charles Darwin
Natural selection + evolution
Dorothea Dix
REFORMED mental institutions in the US
Stanley Hall
1st president of APA1 journal
Wilhelm Wundt
Father of MODERN psychology
STRUCTURALIST
Basic research
Purpose is to increase knowledge
Applied research
purpose is to help people
Advantages and disadvantages of an experiment
+ researcher controls variables to establish cause and effect
- difficult to generalize
IV
purposefully altered by the researcher to look for effect
Psychologist
Research or counseling
Psychiatrist
Prescribe medications and diagnose
Experimental group
Received the treatment
Double-blind experiment
Neither the participant or experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to
Single-blind experiment
Only the participant is blind
Operational definition
Precise and typically QUANTIFIABLE definition of your variables- allows REPLICATION
Confounding variable
Error or flaw in the study that can mess up results
Random assignment
Assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random, minimizing bias
Random sample
Method for choosing participants for your study. everyone has a chance to take part
Representative sample
Sample mimics the general population
Placebo effect
Show behaviors associated with the experimental group when having received the placebo
Control group
Received the placebo
Dependent variable
Measured variable. Caused by the IV
3rd variable problem
Different variable is responsible for a relationship
Illusory correlation
Belief of a correlation that does not exist
Naturalistic observation + adv and disadv
Subjects are observed in their natural environment
+ Real world validity
- No cause and effect
Case study
One person is studied to reveal universal truths
+Studies ONE person in great detail
- No cause and effect
Normal distribution
Bell shaped curve
Mean=Median=Mode
Descriptive Stats: Measures of central tendency
Mean: Average
Median: Middle # (including repeats)
Mode: Number occurs most often
Positive skew
Downwards slope
Mode<Median<Mean
Advantages and disadvantages or correlation
+ Identifies relationships between two variables
- no cause and effect
Positive and negative correlation
Positive: variables increase and decrease together
Negative correlation: As one increases the other decreases
Strength of correlations
Closer the number is to 1 or -1, stronger the relationship
Confidentiality
information on participants kept secret
Statistical significance
Results are not due to chance
Negative skew
Upward slope
Mean<median<mode
Inferential statistics
Establishes significance of a stat
Informed consent
Must agree to be part of the study
Debreifing
Must be told the true purpose of the study (after the study)
Neuron
Basic cell of the nervous system
Dendrites
Receive incoming signal from another neuron
Soma
Cell body (includes nucleus) assesses messages
Axon potential
Action potential passes down
Myelin Sheath
Speeds up action potential, protects axon
Terminals
Release neurotransmitters- send signal onto the next neuron
Synapse
gap between neurons
Vesicles
Sacs (rhymes with testicles) inside terminal contain neurotransmitters
Action potential
Movement of Sodium and Potassium ions across membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon. More sodium outside, more potassium inside.
All or none law
All or none law of action potential: Stimulus must trigger the action potential past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity of the response (you have to poop before you flush, but no matter how much you poop, the intensity of the flush wont change)
Motor neurons
Bring messages from the brain to muscle organs and glands
Two main nervous systems
Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System: All the nerves which feed into the brain and spinal cord
Refractory period of action potential
Neuron must rest and reset before it can send another action potential
Sensory Neurons
Send messages about sensory experience to the brain
Interneurons
Relay messages from sensory neurons to other interneurons or motor neurons
Two parts of the Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System: Controls the voluntary movements
Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary movements (breathing, heartbeat)
What are neurotransmitters
Chemicals released in the synaptic gap, received by neurons
GlutamatE
Excitatory
Learning and long term memory
two parts of the Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body in stressful situations (prepares for fight or flight)
Parasympathetic NS: Calms the body after a sympathetic response.
Homeostatic relationship
GABA
Inhibitory
Regulates sleep cycle
ACH
Muscle function, memory
Serotonin
Moods and emotion
Dopamine
Reward and movement
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Arousal in the sympathetic NS
Endorphins
Pain control
Oxytocin
Love and bonding
Agonist
Drug mimics a neurotransmitter
Excitatory
SSRI’s
Block reuptake
treatment for depression
Antagonist
Drug blocks a neurotransmitter
Inhibitory
Reuptake
Unused neurotransmitters are taken back by the sending neuron
Parts of the brain stem
Cerebellum: Balance
Medulla: Regulates organs of basic body functions
Pons: Relays signals to the cerebellum about basic body functions
Reticular formation: Alertness, monitors sensory messages
Thalamus: Relay center for all senses BUT smell (you MUST use your thalamus unless it is MUSTy)
Parts of the limbic system
Hippocampus: Memory (if you saw a hippo on a campus you’d remember it)
Amygdala: Relates to emotions
Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure
Damage to the left hemisphere
aphasia (damaged speech)
What is the cerebral cortex
Outer portion of the brain- higher order thought process
Contains 4 lobes and 4 cortices per side
4 lobes of the cerebral cortex
Frontal lobe: Decision making, judgement
Occipital lobe: Vision
Parietal lobe: Touch Sensations
Temporal lobe: Hearing and face recognition
4 cortices of the cerebral cortex
Somatosensory Cortex: Map of touch sensory receptors- located in parietal lobe
Motor Cortex: Map of movement receptors- located in frontal lobe
Auditory cortex: Map of hearing receptors- located in temporal lobe
Visual cortex: Map of vision receptors- located in occipital lobe
Corpus Callosum
Bundle of nerves connecting the 2 hemisphere
What is the split-brain procedure? Experiments?
People with severe seizures get their corpus callosum severed
Image shown the right eye is processed in the left hemisphere- pateint can say what they saw. Image shown to the left eye is processed in the right hemisphere- patient can’t say what they saw, right side does not process speech.
Brocas area + when damaged
Provides ability to produce speech
Damage- inability to produce speech (Broca/broken speech)
Wernicke’s area + damaged
Provides ability to comprehend speech
Damage: inability to comprehend speech (Wernickes what?)
Brain plasticity
Brain is malleable
How do genetics vs. environment affect seperated twins
Genetics: identical twins will have similar traits and characteristics because of their genetics
Environment: twins will have different traits and characteristics based on their environments
(nature vs. nurture)
EEG
Measures electrical activity in neurons
MEG
Identifies malfunctioning neurons
PET
Detects a radioactive form of glucose
CT Scan
Series of XRay photos from different angles combined
MRI
Studies structure of brain
fMRI
Studies function of brain
Difference between identical and fraternal twins
Identical twins- monozygotic (same DNA)
Fraternal twins- Dizygotic (Different DNA)
What is the endocrine system + its parts
Endocrine system: Set of glands that secrete hormones into bloodstream
Pituitary gland: Releases growth hormones. Controlled by hypothalamus
Adrenal gland: Releases adrenaline while sympathetic NS is working
Parathyroids: Release calcium into blood
Thyroid glands: Metabolism
Pancreas: regulates sugar in blood
Ovary/Testes: secrete sex hormones
States of consciousness
Higher-level: Controlled processes occur- total awareness
Lower-level: Automatic processing (daydreaming, phone numbers)
Altered states: produced through drugs, fatigue, hypnosis
Subconscious: Sleeping/dreaming
No awareness: knocked out
Sleep stages and their waves
NREM1: Alpha to Theta. Light slee
NREM2: Theta waves Little brain wave-bursts called spindles. Over half the night is spent in this stage
NREM3:Delta waves. Deep sleep
REM: Beta waves. Recurring sleep stage with vivid dreams. Muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active
Entire cycle takes 90 mins
3 main functions of consciousness
- Selective attention: Limiting what we notice and think to prevent being overwhelmed
-Sensation combines with memory
-Allows us to create a mental model of the world
genotype
organisms genetic makeup
phenotype
organisms physical characteristics
Circadian rhythms and biological rhythm
24 hour biological clock.
Biological rhythms: periodic physiological fluctuations in temperature, blood pressure, etc. based off 24 hour biological clock
Order of sleep stages
1,2,3,3,2,1, REM
Sleep disorders (INNSS)
Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep
Night terrors: Extreme nightmares (not in REM)
Narcolepsy: Uncontrollably falling asleep (orexin deficiency)
Sleep walking/talking: Due to fatigue, drugs, alcohol (not during REM)
Sleep apnea: Stop breathing while asleep (due to obesity)
Dream theories:Freuds Unconscious Wish Fulfillment
Freuds Unconscious Wish Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification of unconscious desires and needs
Latent Content: hidden meaning
Manifest content: obvious storyline
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
Pair of clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythms
Dream theories: Activation synthesis
Brain produces random bursts of energy which add meaning to dreams
Different types of psychoactive drugs
Depressants: Reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Stimulants: Excite neural activity and speed up body functions
Hallucinogens: Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions
Psychoactive drugs: Stimulants examples
Meth, Nicotine
Psychoactive drugs- Depressants examples
Alcohol
Barbituates (Tranquilizers)
Opiates
Tolerance
Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects
Dependence
Needing a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal
Psychological and physiological symptoms associated with suddenly quiting a drug
Webers Law
The change in a stimulus that will be just noticeable is a constant ratio of the original stimulus
Thresholds: Absolute, Difference, Subliminal
Absolute: Minimal level of stimulus necessary for a stimulus to be detected
Difference: Smallest amount by which a stimulus can be CHANGED and the difference be detected
Subliminal: Stimuli received below our conscious level of awareness
Sensory adaptation vs Sensory Habituation
Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (Can you feel your underwear?)
Habituation: Diminished sensitivity as a result of regular exposure (Do you notice the clock every 15 mins?)
Signal detection theory
Detecting a weak stimulus depends on our psychological state (New exhausted parents can hear a faint cry of a newborn but fail to notice loud noises)
Perceptual set
Tendency to see something as a part of a group
Fovea, Rods, Cones, Bipolar cells, Optic nerve
Fovea: Area of sharpest vision. Highest concentration of cones
Rods: Perceive black and white, dim light
Cones: Perceive color and bright light
Bipolar cells: Connect rods and cones to ganglion cells
Optic nerve : bundle of bipolar and ganglion cells that carry visual information from the retina to the brain
Cornea, Pupil, Lens, Retina
Cornea: outer covering of the eye
Pupil: Adjustable opening in the center of the eye where light enters
Lens: Transparent structure behind pupil which changes shape to help focus image on retina
Retina: Light sensitive inner surface of eye containing rods and cones
Transduction + process
Conversion of energy into neural messages
1. Detection by a sensory neuron of a physical stimulus
2. When the stimulus reaches the sense organ, it activates receptors
3. Receptors convert their excitation into a nerve signal
Blindness: Inattentional vs. Change vs. Cocktail Party Effect
Inattentional: Failure to notice something because you are focused on another task
Change Blindness: Failure to notice a change in the environment
Cocktail party effect: Ability to attend to one voice out of many around you
Blind spot
occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye
Feature detectors
Specialized cells see motion, shapes, lines, etc. located in the occipital love
Trichromatic theory + colorblindness
There are three cones for receiving color (blue,red,green)
Color blind people are missing at least one cone type
Phi Phenomenon
Illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on or off in quick succession (lights in a circle)
Opponent processing
There are some color combinations we never see (reddish-green, yellowish-blue) because they complementary colors are processed in the same ganglion cells
Visual capture
Visual system overwhelms all others (Nauseous in an IMAX theater- vision trumps vestibular)
Stroboscopic movement
Motion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images (flipbooks)
Interposition
An item overlapping another item appears closer
Relative clarity
Hazy objects appear further away
Relative height
Things higher in our field of vision appear further away
Relative size
2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away
Convergence
Eyes strain more as objects draw nearer
Retinal Disparity
Image is cast slightly differently on each retina
Top down processing vs bottom up processing
Top down: Using previously learned models and ideas to interpret sensory information
Bottom up processing: Taking sensory information and the integrating it without relying on prior knowledge
Pathway of sound
Sound, pinna, auditory canal, hammer, anvil, stirrup, oval window, cochlea, auditory nerve, temporal lobes
Linear perspective
Parallel lines converge with distance (railroad)
Place theory of sound
Pitch is determined by the location where hair cells bend. Hair cells near the cochlea detect higher pitched sounds.
McGurk effect
Illusion illustrating how perceivers merge information for speech sounds across the senses. (see mouth saying ba or fa overrides what you actually hear-va)
Auditory nerve
transmits information from the cochlea to the brain in the form of sound
Inner ear: Cochlea, Basilar membrane, semicircular canals
Cochlea: Snail shaped, fluid filled tube producing nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations
Basilar membrane: Log membrane runs the length of the cochlea and contains tiny hair that act as sound receptors- WHERE TRANSDUCTION OCCURS
Semicircular canals: 3 fluid-filled bony channels that keep us balanced
Frequency theory
Rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound- slower rate, lower pitch
Middle Ear: Eardrum: hammer, anvil, stirrup
Air-filled central cavity of the ear which transmits the eardrums vibrations through the hammer, anvil, stirrup
Outer ear: pinna, auditory canal
Pinna: Outside of the ear
Auditory canal: Carries sound waves to the eardrum
vestibular
sense of balance caused by fluid in the semicircular canals of the inner ear
Kinesthetic(proprioception)
Sense of body position caused by neurons in ligaments
Gate control theory
We have a neural “gate” that, under certain circumstances, can block incoming pain
Nociceptors
Sensory receptors for painful stimuli, routed to the anterior cingulate cortex
Taste (gustation) 5 receptors
Bitter, sweet, salty, sour, umami (savory)
Smell (olfaction) route
Only sense that does NOT route through thalamus. Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala
Gestalt psychology
The brain forms a perceptual whole that is more than the sum of its parts
Closure
Mentally filling gaps to create a whole object
Figure/ground
Organize information into figures (objects) that stand apart from surroundings (backGround)
Proximity
group things together that appear near each other
Similarity
When similarity occurs, an object can be emphasized if it is dissimilar
Continuity
We perceive continuous patterns rather than continuous ones
Conditioned taste aversion for evolutionary purposes- John Garcia
Associating a sensory cue with getting sick ONCE and thereafter avoiding that cue
Law of effect + who
Edward Thorndike
Rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur
Primary vs. secondary reinforcement
Primary: Something that is naturally reinforcing (food, warmth, water)
Secondary: Something you have learned to be a reward because it is paired with a primary reinforcement (Good grades = ur fav dinner)
Token economy
Individuals are rewarded with tokens, which act as a secondary reinforcer. Tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards
Positive vs. Negative reinforcement
Positive: A stimulus presented after a response increases a response (getting paid for good grades)
Negative: Removal of an unpleasant stimulus increases a response (taking advil to get rid of a headache)
Positive vs Negative punishment
Positive: an undesirable event that follows a behavior (getting spanked)
Negative: When a desirable event ends or is taken away after a behavior (getting phone taken after failing test)
Shaping
New behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response
Continuous reinforcement vs intermittent reinforcement
Continuous:Reinforcement schedule under which all correct responses are reinforced
Intermittent: Some but not all correct responses are reinforced (most effective way)
Cognitive learning
Changes in mental processes, rather than changes in behavior alone
Schedules of intermittent reinforcement: fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio
Fixed interval: rewards a learner after a defined period of time (birthday)
Variable interval: Rewards the learner after an unpredictable amount of time (pop-quiz)
Fixed ratio: Rewards a response after a defined number of correct answers (accumulating points to win a sale)
Variable ratio: Rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses (lottery)
Premack principle
Idea that a more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation
In: Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake (nature)
Ex: Desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid punishment (nurture)
Internal vs. External Locus of Control
Internal: perception that we control our own fate
External: Perception that chance or outside forces determine our fate
Latent learning
Learning occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it
Observational learning + modeling
New responses are acquired after other’s behavior and the consequences of their behavior are observed
Modeling: process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Prosocial vs Antisocial behavior
Prosocial: Imitating positive behaviors (role modeling)
Antisocial: Imitating negative behaviors (Bobo Doll)
Mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
3 types of encoding: semantic, acoustic, visual
Semantic: encoding the meaning of things and words
Acoustic: encoding of sound
Visual encoding: encoding of images
Learned helplessness
Passive resignation learned when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
Paralle processing
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously
Three retention measures
Recall: One must reproduce previously presented material
Recognition: One must identify information provided, which has been previously presented
Relearn: Relearning information that has been previously learned, but you do so quicker a second time around
Atkinson and Shiffrin three stage model of human memory
- Record information as a fleeting sensory memory
- Process info into short term memory, where we encode through rehearsal
- Information can move into long term memory for later retrieval
Memories three basic tasks: Encoding, storage, retrieval
Encoding: Putting information into memory
Storage: keeping information in our memory
Retrieval: Getting information out of our memory
Rosy retrospection
Recalling the high points while forgetting the mundane
3 storage memories: sensory, short term, long term
Sensory: Immediate recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short term: activated memory holds a few items briefly before information is further stored or forgotten
Long term: Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
Long term potentiation
The more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength the neuron has
Mnemonics
Peg-word system
Hierarchies
Mnemonics: Memory aids, especially those that use vivid imagery
Peg-word system: requires you to visualize a jingle
Hierarchies: few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts
Coping mechanisms of short term memory: Chunking + Rehearsal
Chunking: Any memory pattern. Spliting information into chunks allows us to fit more information into the seven available slots of working memory
Rehearsal: Information is repeated to keep it from fading while in short term memory
Distributed practice: Spacing effect vs. testing effect
Spacing: Tendency for distributed practice to yield better long-term retention
Testing: testing enhances memory after retreiving
Encoding specificity principle vs. Mood-congruent memory
Encoding specificty: The more closely retrieval cues math the way the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered (taking a test in your designated seat)
Mood-congruent: We tend to selectively remember memories that match our current mood
2 divisions of declarative memory: Episodic + Semantic
Episodic: stores personal events like time and place
Semantic: Stores general knowledge
Eidetic imagery
Ability to recall a memory in minute detail (photographic memory)
Shallow processings 2 parts: structural and phonemic
Structural processing: Encode the physical appearance of something
Phonemic processing: Encoding the sound of something
Require maintenance rehearsal
Deep processing: semantic processing
Semantic: Encoding the meaning of a word and relating it to similar words with similar meanings
Requires elaboration rehearsal
Flashbulb memory
Highly emotional events in which people remember exactly where they were and what they felt
Procedural vs. Declarative memory
Procedural: Memory that was not deliberatley learned (muscle memory, automatic processing)
Declarative: Memory had been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled
Priming
Introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulus (Prime someone to walk more slowly by having them read words like cautious or leisurely)
types of interference: proactive, retroactive
Proactive: An old memory disrupts the learning and remembering of a new memory
Retroactive: A new memory blocks the retrieval of an old memory
Decay theory
Unused memories fade gradually over time
Misinformation effect
Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
schacters seven sins of memory: Transcience, absent mindedness, blocking, serial position effect, misattribution, suggestibility,persistence
- Transcience: Decay theory
-Absent mindedness: Lapses in attention
-Blocking: Interferene
-Serial position effect: Interference related to the sequence in which material is presented
-Misattribution: memories are retrieved but associated with the wrong time, place, or person
-Suggestibility: Process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
Bias: Influence of personal beliefs, attitudes, and experiences on memory
-Persistence: A memory problem where unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind
Consolidation
Information in the working memory is gradually changed over to long term
3 types of amnesia: retrograde, anterograde, source
Retrograde: inability to remember information previously stored
Anterograde: Inability to form memories from new material
Source: Can learn new facts but have no memory of the source of this knowledge
Serial position effect: Primacy and Recency
Primacy: Relative ease of remembering the first information in a series
Recency: Strong memories of the most recent information in a series
information in the middle of a series is exposed to retroactive and proactive interference
2 types of bias: expectancy vs. self-consistency
Expectancy: Memory tendency to distort recalled events to fit ones expectations
Self-consistency: Commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes and beliefs over time, than we actually are
Prototype
Mental image or best example
Creativity: convergent vs. divergent thinking
convergent: ability to provide a single correct answer (aptitude tests)
DivergentL ability to think and consider many options and possible solutions (creativity tasks or everyday situations)
Schema
General frameworks that provide expecations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations
Mental sets + why are they a problem for heuristics
tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for previous problems
Familiar tactic of problem solving may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
Representativeness bias (heuristic)
Jusging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they math a particular prototype
Confirmation bias
Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions
Making infrences: accommodation vs assimilation
accomodation: adapting our current understanding to incorporate new information
Assimilation: Interpreting new experiences with our existing schemas
Problem solving: Algorithms, Heuristics, Insight
Algorithms: Problem solving procedures or formulas guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied
Heuristics: simple basic rules serve as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks
Insight: sudden realization of a solution (Kohler)
Functional fixedness + why is it a problem for heuristics
Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose
Cannot try new tactics
Hindsight bias
Tendency to second guess a decision after the event has happened (I knew you were trouble when u walked in)
Overconfidence vs. Belief perserverance
Overconfidence: tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgements
Belief perserverance: Clinging to ones initial conceptions after the basis on whch they have been formed are discredited
Availibility bias
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availibility in memory
Intuition
Automatic feelings or thought as contrasted with conscious reasoning
Framing
The way an issue is posed cant greatly impact judgement and decisions
Phoneme vs Morpheme
Phoneme: smallest distinctive sound unit
Morpheme: smallest unit that carries meaning (-ed = past tense)
Phases of early speech acquisition. receptive, babbling, one-word, two-word, fast mapping
Receptive: Recognizing when sounds are broken into words, sounds associate with facial movements
Babbling: Spontaneously utters various sounds
One-word: Child speaks mostly in single words
Two-word: Child speaks mostly in two-word statements
Fast mapping: toddlers begin to use context and what the learned others say in order to learn the meaning of new words
Formula to find IQ
mental age/chronological age x100
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Performance peaks with optimal arousal. Performance decreases with too little or too much arousal.
Cannon-Bard theory
Emotion and physiological response occur simultaneously yet independently
James Lange theory
Stimulus causes physiological causes emotion
Maslows hierarchy
Humans have to satisfy specific types of need
Physiological, safety, love, esteem, self actualization
Masters and Johnson experiment
Naturalistic observation.
700 people participated in their study of physiological responses during sexual behavior
Sexual response cycle
excitement
plateau
orgasm
resolution
Two factor theory
Physiological arousal leads to cognition leads to emotion
Lazarus
cognition causes physiolgial and emotion siumltaneously yet independently
Intelligence
ability to learn from experience, solve problems, use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Habituation
Learning not to respond to the repeated presentation of a stimulus (How often do you look when a car alarm goes off?)
Behavioral learning
Forms of learning such as classical and operant conditioning which can be described in terms of stimuli and responses
Habituation is to ___ as sensory adaptation is to ____
learning; physiological
Mere exposure effect
Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed (I like coke better than pepsi because my parents always bought coke)
Extinction in terms of learning
Previously conditioned response diminishes
Associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together.
Spontaneous recovery
The response after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response
5 main components of classical conditioning
Neutral Stimulus: Stimulus that initially produces no response other then focusing attention
Unconditioned Stimulus: Stimulus that provokes a reflexive response without learning
Unconditioned response: Response resulting from an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning
Conditioned stimulus: Originally neutral stimulus that gains the power to cause the response
Conditioned response: Elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the UCS
Classical conditioning vs. Operant conditioning
Classical: A previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus (dogs)
Operant: The probability of a response is changed by its consequences
Generalization vs. Discrimination
Generalization: inability to distinguish the difference between two like stimuli
Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between two similar stimulus
General intelligence
All mental abilities measured by every task on an intelligence test
Charles Spearman
Factor analysis
Statistical procedure identifies clusters of related items on a test
savant syndrome
A person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill
emotional intelligence
ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
Howard Gardners theory of multiple intelligences
musical, visual-spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, verbal-linguistic
Flynn effect
Intelligence test performance has improved over time
Grit
passion and perserverance in pursuit of long-term goals
Sternbergs triarchic theory
Analytical: academic problem solving
creative: innovative smarts; the ability to adapt to new situations
practical: required for everyday tasks with multiple solutions
Intelligence tests: achievement vs aptitude
achievement: intended to reflect what you have learned
Aptitude: intended to predict your ability to learn a new skill
Francis Galton
Wanted to use intelligence testing for Eugenics: selective reproduction used to enhance the human race
Purpose of Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales
To periodically restandardize tests (keep the average score near 100)
Validity: content validity vs. predictive validity
Content: extent to which a test samples the behavior of interest
Predictive: success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to
3 criteria an intelligence test must meet to be accepted: standardized, reliable, valid
- Standardized: scores are compared to a pretested sample population
- reliable: test gives consistent scores
- test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
WISC
IQ test given to children 6-16- determines giftedness, assesses strengths and weaknesses
Intelligence: crystalized vs fluid
crystalized: accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; increases with age
fluid: ability to reason speedily and abstractly; decreases with age
sterotype threat
Risk of confirming sterotypes about an individuals race, ethnicity, gender, or culture which can reduce academic performance
