Memory Flashcards
Memory
A system that encodes, stores, and retreives information
three retention measures
recall, recognition, relearning
Recall
One must reproduce previously presented material (essay test, sketch of a subject)
Recognition
One must identify information that is provided, which has previously been presented (multiple choice test, police line up)
Relearning
Relearning information that has been previously learned, but you do so quicker a second time around. Improves strength of memories (Review sessions)
Information-processing model
Human brain takes essentially meaningless information and turns it into meaningful patterns
Three steps of information-processing model
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
Encoding
getting information into memory
Storage
Keeping information in our memory
Retrieval
Getting information out of our memory
Parallel processing
Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously (sometimes unconsciously)
Three stage model of human memory
- Record information to remember as a fleeting sensory memory
- Process information into short-term or working memory, where we encode through rehearsal
- information can move into long-term memory for later retrieval
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
3 types of encoding
semantic, acoustic, visual
semantic encoding
encoding of meaning, including meaning of words
Acoustic encoding
encoding of sound, especially sound of words
Visual encoding
encoding of picture images
Rosy retrospection
Recalling the high points while forgetting the mundane
Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Peg-word system
“one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door”- requires visualization of a jingle
Sensory memory
the immediate recording of sensory information in the memory system
Hierarchies
few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts
Working memory
holds a few items briefly, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. includes knowledge, skills, experiences
What does the hippocampus do in terms of storage
Long term processing site for explicit memories. (declarative)
Left: verbal information
Right: visual information
What role does cerebellum play in storage
Processes implicit memories created through classical conditioning (non declarative)
Long-term potentiation
The more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has. Neural basis for learning and remembering associations
Retreival cues
Search terms we use to activate memory- like a google search, the more specific, the better results
Encoding specificity principle
the more closely the retreival cues match the way the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered
Mood-congruent memory
We tend to selectively remember our memories that match our current mood
Eidetic imagery
recall a memory and portraying the most interesting and meaningful parts most accuratley
2 types of processing
shallow, deep
Shallow processing
Leads to short term retention using visual and verbal processing
Deep processing
semantic processing:
happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning
Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal, a more meaningful analysis of information and leads to better recall
Coping mechanisms of working memory
chunking and rehearsal
chunking
Creating chunks based on patterns or meaningful units of memory, allows us to fit more information into the seven available slots of working memory
Rehearsal
Information is repeated to keep it from fading while in working memory
Spacing effect
tendency for distributed practice to yield better long term retention that is achieved through mass study or practice
Testing effect
testing improves memory- enhanced memory after retrieving rather than just simply reading information (reading checks)
Working memory location
frontal cortex
Implicit memory
A memory that was not deliberately learned- no conscious awareness (muscle memory of throwing a ball, automatic processing)
Explicit memory
a memory that had been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled (the three stages of memory, effortful processing)
Types of declarative memory
Episodic, Semantic
Episodic memory
Portion of memory that stores personal events or “episodes” (ex: time and place)
Semantic memory
Portion of memory stores general knowledge, facts and language meaning (where all the information you “know” is stored)
Flashbulb memory
Clear and vivid memories of highly emotional events. Remembering exactly where they were, when it happened, emotions (9/11)
Priming
Technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulus (Ex: prime someone to walk more slowly by having them read words like cautious or leisurely)
Consolidation
Information in the working memory is gradually changed over to long term memories
What does the amygdala do for memory
strengthening memories that have strong emotional connections
Schemas
personal understanding of specific settings. direct our memory construction
Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
(car accident example)
Why does imagination inflation occur
Visualizing something and actually perceiving it activate similar brain areas
Retrograde amnesia
Inability to remember information previously stored in memory
Anterograde amnesia
inability to form memories from new material
Source amnesia and cause
can learn new facts, but have no memory of the source because of consolidation error
Transience/Decay theory
unused memories fade gradually over time
Interference theory
other memories interfere with retrieval
Types of interference
Proactive, retroactive
Proactive interference
When an old memory disrupts the learning and remembering of a new memory
Retroactive interference
When a new memory blocks the retrieval of an old memory
Absent-mindedness forgetting
Forgetting caused by lapses in attention (forgetting where you parked, losing keys)
Serial position effect
Form of interference related to the sequence in which material is presented
Blocking forgetting
forgetting when a memory cannot be retrieved because of interference
Primacy
relative ease of remembering the first information in a series
Recency
Strong memories of the most recent information in a series
Misattribution (distortion)
When a memory is retreived, but associated with the wrong time, place, or person (TV rape example)
Suggestibility (distortion)
Process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
Bias (distortion)
Influence of personal beliefs, attitudes and experiences on memory
Expectancy bias
a memory tendency to distort recalled events to fit one’s expectations(ice cream)
Self-consistency bias
A commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes and beliefs, over time, then we actually are
(thinking you have always loved ice cream, but in reality you hated it when you were younger)
Persistence (intrusion)
Memory problem where unwanted memories cannot be put out of their mind
transience is to ____ as suggestibility is to _____
forgetting, blocking
Alzheimers disease
brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills, and, eventually, the ability to carry out simple tasks
Herman Ebbingham
Tested himself on memorization of random syllables, and forgot them over time, but he could relearn them in less time
Overlearning
Process of rehearsing a skill even after improvement has stopped
Connectionism model
Memories are products of interconnected neural networks. Everytime you learn something, your brains neural connections change, forming and strengthening pathways that allow you to interact with and learn from your constantly changing environment
Alan Baddeleys model
1) Auditory rehearsal and Visual-spatial information
2) Central executive focuses our attention
3) Memories are pulled from long term memory to help make sense of new information
Karl Lashley
Removed pieces of rats brains, and they still retained partial memory of how to get out of the maze
What role does the basal ganglia play in memory
Facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills
infantile amnesia
Our conscious memory of our first four years is largely blank
Eric Kandel
Observed synaptic changes during learning in the neurons of Cali sea slug
Sea slug example
When learning occurs, slug releases more of the neurotransmitter serotonin into certain neurons. These cells synapses then become more efficient at transmitting signals
What role does serotonin play in memory
Declarative memories that contain personal experiences, general facts, events
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Increase in a cells firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; neural basis for learning and memory
What role does glutamate play in memory
LTP-enhancing neurotransmitter
Context dependent memory
Affected by the cues we have associated with that context
Encoding specificity principle
The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
Encoding failures
Brain areas that jump into action when young adults encode new information are less responsive in older adults
Storage decay
Gradual fading of the physical memory trace
motivated forgetting
We repress painful or unacceptable memories to protect our self-concept and minimize anxiety
Repression
Basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Reconsolidation
Process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
Can memories of childhood sexual abuse be repressed and then recovered
Recovery is unlikely, it would probably be a false memory
Why are children eyewitness descriptions unreliable
Frontal lobe has not fully matured
