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BIOL 133 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

“flight or fight” response
“rest and digest” response

controls involuntary responses

PNS-> motor division-> ANS-> sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

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2
Q

muscle controlled by the ANS

A

smooth, cardiac, and glandular tissue

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3
Q

ANS Primary Responsibilities

A

to regulate homeostatic mechanisms in the body

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4
Q

Sympathetic division of the ANS

A

originates out of the lateral horn of the thoracolumbar spinal cord system

a central neuron (part of the CNS) in the lateral horn of any of these spinal regions projects ganglia adjacent to the vertebral column through the ventral spinal roots

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5
Q

Ventral spinal roots

A

allow motor neurons to exit the spinal cord

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6
Q

Dorsal spinal roots

A

allow sensory neurons to enter the spinal cord

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7
Q

Afferent

A

from the PNS to the CNS

sensory neurons send signals to the CNS for integration

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8
Q

Efferent

A

from the CNS to the PNS

motor neurons send signals to the PNS for movement

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9
Q

Sympathetic system ganglia

A

majority belong to a network of sympathetic chain ganglia that run alongside the vertebral column

23 ganglia in the chain on either side of the spinal column

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10
Q

23 ganglia in the sympathetic chain

A

3 corresponds to the cervical region
12 are in the thoracic region
4 are in the lumbar region
4 corresponds to the sacral region

the cervical and sacral levels aren’t connected to the spinal cord directly through spinal roots
- instead though ascending/descending connections from bridges within the chain

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11
Q

Connections of the sympathetic division

A

neurons from the lateral horns (preganglionic nerve fibers) -> project to chain ganglia on either side of the vertebral column/ collateral ganglia (prevertebral) anterior to the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity -> axons from the ganglionic neurons (postganglionc nerve fibres) project to target effectors throughout the body

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12
Q

Sympathetic response

A

preganglionic fibers (neurons in the lateral horn) release ACh -> excites the ganglionic neuron through the nicotinic receptor -> postganglionic fibres (axon from the ganglionic neuron) projects to a target effector -> releases norepinephrine to bind to an adrenergic receptor -> causes a change in the physiology of the organ

the postganglionic connections to sweat glands and blood vessels supplying skeletal muscles are an exception - they release ACh onto muscarinic receptors

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13
Q

Connection to the adrenal medulla

A

a specialized preganglionic connection to the adrenal medulla causes epinephrine and norepinephrine to release into the bloodstream

allows the sympathetic chemical signal to spread throughout the body quickly and effect many organ systems at once

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14
Q

Chromaffin Cells

A

cells in the adrenal medulla that are contacted by the preganglionic fibres

chromaffin cells are neurosecretory cells -> functionally a sympathetic ganglion

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15
Q

Parasympathetic Division of the ANS

A

the output is based in the brain stem and the sacral spinal cord (the craniosacral system)

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16
Q

Parasympathetic response

A

neurons from particular nuclei in the brain stem or the lateral horn of the sacral spinal cord (preganglionic neurons) -> project to terminal ganglia (intramural) located close to or within the wall of target effectors

preganglionic neurons also release ACh onto nicotinic receptors -> excite ganglionic neurons (postganglionic neurons) -> contact target tissues within organs to release ACh -> binds with muscarinic receptors -> induces rest and digest responses

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17
Q

Chemical Signalling in the ANS

A

signalling molecules used in the ANS are released from axons and are either neurotransmitters or hormones

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18
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

directly interact with the effector

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19
Q

Hormones

A

are released into the bloodstream

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20
Q

Synapses in the ANS

A

instead of having synaptic bulbs at the end of each axonal fibre, the axons may have swellings (varicosities) along the length to make many connections with the target tissue

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21
Q

Sympathetic Signalling Molecules

A

preganglionic: ACh -> nicotinic receptor

postganglionic: norepinephrine -> alpha or beta adrenergic receptors
ACh -> muscarinic receptor (associated with sweat glands and blood vessels associated with skeletal muscles only)

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22
Q

parasympathetic signalling molecules

A

preganglionic: ACh -> nicotinic receptor

postganglionic: ACh -> muscarinic receptor

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23
Q

Visceral reflex

A

it is similar to the somatic reflex, but the efferent branch is composed of 2 neurons

the central neuron projects from the spinal cord or brain stem -> synapses on the ganglionic neuron that projects to the effector

the afferent branch of somatic and visceral reflexes are similar

some visceral senses don’t form a conscious perception

the ANS function is based on the visceral reflex

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24
Q

Visceral sensation (afferent)

A

if a visceral sensation is strong enough it will rise to the level of consciousness

sensory homunculus isnt able to provide a representation of the internal structure, so visceral sensations are often experienced as referred pain

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25
Q

role of visceral reflexes

A

maintain a balance of function in the organ systems of the body

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26
Q

ANS (efferent)

A

the 2 divisions of the ANS play a role in effecting change -> in competing directions

the competing inputs can contribute to the resting tone of the organ system

heart rate is normally under parasympathetic tone

blood pressure is normally under sympathetic tone

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27
Q

Hypothalamus

A

the hypothalamus is the central autonomic structure

coordinates sympathetic and parasympathetic efferent pathways to regulated activities of the organ systems

majority of hypothalamic output travels through the medial forebrain bundle (connects the hypothalamus to the midbrain) and the dorsal longitudinal fasciculus (connects the hypothalamus to the medulla oblongata) to influence the brain stem/spinal components of the ANS

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28
Q

Medial forebrain bundle

A

connects the hypothalamus to the midbrain and also connects the hypothalamus with higher centres of the limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus) where emotion can influence visceral responses

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29
Q

Higher centres of the limbic system

A

have descending control of the ANS through brainstem centres, such as the cardiovascular centre

the collection of medullary nuclei regulates cardiac function, as well as blood pressure

sensory input from the heart, aorta, and carotid sinuses project to regions in the medulla

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30
Q

Solitary nucleus

A

increases sympathetic tone of the cardiovascular system through cardiac accelerator and vasomotor nerves

The solitary nucleus is a structure in the brainstem that carries and receives visceral sensation and taste cranial nerves

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31
Q

Nucleus ambiguus and dorsal motor nucleus

A

contribute fibres to the vagus nerve, which exerts parasympathetic control of the heart by decreasing heart rate

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32
Q

Sensation

A

activation of sensory receptor cells at the level of stimulus

senses can be classified as general and special

33
Q

perception

A

the central processing of sensory stimuli into a meaningful pattern

perception is dependent on sensation

not all sensations are perceived

34
Q

general senses

A

touch (tactile, pressure, vibration, temp, pain perception)

also include the visceral senses, but they dont normally rise to the level of conscious perception

35
Q

special senses

A

olfaction (smell), gustation(taste), audition(hearing), equilibrium(balance), and vision

36
Q

Receptor cell

A

changed directly by stimulus

transmembrane protein receptor mediates physiological changes in a neuron -> through the opening of ion channels or changes in the cell signalling processes

37
Q

transmembrane receptors

A

activated by chemicals called ligands

38
Q

transmembrane proteins

A

sensitive to chemical, mechanical, or thermal changes

physical changes increase ion flow or protein changes across the membrane -> generates an action potential or graded potential in the sensory neurons

39
Q

Sensory cells (structural, anatomy, and functional classifications)

A

cells that transduce sensory stimuli into the electrochemical signals of the nervous system

structural classifications (interacting with the stimulus)
-> free nerve ending, encapsulated endings, or specialized receptor cell

anatomy classification (location of cell relative to the stimulus)
-> interoceptor (internal organs), exteroceptor (external organs), proprioceptor (moving structures)

functional classification (stimulus transduction)
-> chemical = chemoreceptors (for olfaction and gustation)
-> chemicals for tissue damage = nociceptors (detecting pain)
-> solute concentrations = osmoreceptors
-> physical stimuli = mechanoreceptors (somatosensation, audition, and equilibrium
-> temp = thermoreceptors
-> electromagnetic energy = photoreceptors (light perception)

40
Q

Sensory info to PNS to CNS

A

either spinal nerves or cranial nerves

41
Q

Spinal nerves

A

sensory info from the body that is conveyed through spinal nerves will project to the opposite side of the brain to be processed by the cerebral cortex

42
Q

cranial nerves

A

can be strictly sensory fibres -> olfactory, optic, and vestibulocochlear nerves

or

mixed sensory and motor nerves -> trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerve

connected to the same side of the brain from which the sensory info originates

43
Q

Gustation

A

Taste

sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami

surface of the tongue/oral cavity is lined by stratified squamous epithelium

papillae (contain taste buds)-> contain structures for gustatory transduction

taste buds contain specialized gustatory receptor cells for transduction of taste stimuli

na+ = salty
H+= sour (more cations = lower saliva pH = stronger stimuli)
glucose = sweet
alkaloids = bitter
L-glutamate = umami

44
Q

Olfaction

A

Smell

olfactory receptor neurons are located in the olfactory epithelium in the nasal canal -> contain bipolar sensory neurons

neurons have dendrites extending from the apical surface of the epithelium into the mucus lining the cavity

olfactory bulb -> olfactory tract -> ventral surface of the frontal lobe

45
Q

primary olfactory cortex

A

located in the inferior and medial areas of the temporal lobe

forms the conscious perception of smell

46
Q

Audition

A

Hearing

the transduction of sound waves into a neural signal that is possible by structures in the ear

47
Q

Auricle

A

external ear

c-shaped curves direct sound waves to the auditory canal

the canal enter the temporal bone of the skull through the external auditory meatus

48
Q

External ear

A

auricle, ear canal, tympanic membrane

49
Q

Middle ear

A

space spanned by three small bones called the ossicles

malleus -> incus -> stapes

50
Q

Inner ear

A

composed of a series of canals embedded within the temporal bone

cochlea (hearing) has spiral ganglia and the vestibule (balance)

cochlear duct contains sound-transducing neurons

the cochlea is filled with a fluid called perilymph

51
Q

Equilibrium

A

Balance

equilibrium info is encoded by mechanoreceptors called hair cells with stereocilia

52
Q

Vestibule

A

equilibrium sensing hair cells are located in the vestibule of the inner ear

head positions is sensed by utricle and saccule
-> brain interprets head position based on hair-cell depolarization pattern

head movement is sensed by semicircular canals

53
Q

Semicircular canals

A

3 ring like extensions of the vestibule

54
Q

Vision

A

bony orbits surround eyeballs -> provides protection and anchors soft tissue

55
Q

lacrimal gland

A

produce tears

56
Q

Anterior cavity of the eye

A

space between the cornea and lens filled with a watery fluid called the aqueous humor

57
Q

Posterior cavity of the eye

A

space between the lens and the retina filled with a more viscous fluid called the vitreous humor

58
Q

Retinal structure

A

photoreceptors -> cones and rods
they are located behind axons, ganglion cells, blood vessels -> light is deferred from the photoreceptors because of these structures

59
Q

fovea

A

the centre of the retina, lacks supporting cells/blood vessels -> maximizes visual acuity

60
Q

rods

A

low light levels

61
Q

cones

A

higher light levels and are capable of colour vision

62
Q

visual transduction

A

light falls on retina -> chemical change in pigment molecules of photoreceptors

63
Q

photoisomerization

A

retinal’s shape changes due to photon interaction

64
Q

Colour vision

A

photoreceptors have opsins sensitive to specific wavelengths of light

opsins provide colour visions

65
Q

Visual acuity

A

visual acuity drops significantly away from the fovea

66
Q

eye movement

A

there are 6 extraocular muscles that control eye movement

extraocular muscles are innervated by 3 cranial nerves -> 3td, 4th, 6th

motor nuclei of these cranial nerves connect to the brainstem, coordinating eye movements

67
Q

sensory pathway

A

sensory input enters the brain -> reaches the diencephalon -> continues to the thalamus -> reaches the cerebral cortex

except for the olfactory system which is directly connected to the frontal and temporal lobes

68
Q

Dorsal column system

A

fine touch and proprioception (position/movement of the body) sensations

switches over in the medulla

69
Q

spinothalamic tract

A

pain and temp sensations

switches over in the spinal cord

70
Q

photopic vision

A

vision of the eye under well lit conditions (cones)

71
Q

scotopic vision

A

vision of the eye under low-light conditions (rods)

72
Q

purkinje effect

A

red and yellow are brighter under well lit conditions

green and blue are bright under low light conditions

73
Q

SML

A

blue = short wavelength
green = medium wavelength
red = long wavelength

74
Q

rhodopsin

A

a pigment molecule

contained in rods

75
Q

frontal lobe

A

higher executive functions including emotional regulation, planning, reasoning and problem solving occur.

also contains the primary motor cortex, the major region responsible for voluntary movement.

76
Q

parietal lobe

A

responsible for integrating sensory information, including touch, temperature, pressure and pain.

77
Q

temporal lobe

A

regions dedicated to processing sensory information, particularly important for hearing, recognizing language, and forming memories.

contains the primary auditory cortex, which receives auditory information from the ears and secondary areas, and processes the information so we understand what we’re hearing

Certain areas in the temporal lobe make sense of complex visual information including faces and scenes

78
Q

occipital lobe

A

major visual processing centre in the brain.
primary visual cortex

79
Q

macula

A

the maculae indicates that the utricle responds to movements of the head in the horizontal plane, such as sideways head tilts and rapid lateral displacements, whereas the sacculus responds to movements in the vertical plane (up-down and forward-backward movements

BIOL 133 (5 decks)

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