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BIOL 133 > Lab Midterm #2 > Flashcards

Lab Midterm #2 Flashcards

1
Q

urinary system

A

maintains homeostasis of the body -> specifically the composition and volume of blood by balancing the concentrations of ions and excreting wastes from the body

influences your RBC production and blood pressure

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2
Q

organs of the urinary system

A

two kidneys -> high on the posterior wall of the abdomen, protected by the 11th and 12th ribs
two ureters
urinary bladder
urethra

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3
Q

renal artery

A

carries 1200ml of blood to the kidneys per min

enters the kidney at the renal hilus

once it enters the kidneys it divides into smaller vessels that carry blood to each glomeruli

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4
Q

renal hilus

A

where the renal artery enters the kidney

where the renal vein and ureter connect

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5
Q

renal vein

A

filtered blood leaves the kidney via the renal vein

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6
Q

ureter

A

the collected wastes leave the kidney via the ureter and move to the bladder where they are stored before being excreted

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7
Q

kidney

A

composed of over 1 million nephrons which are the functional units of the kidney

is divided into the outer cortex and inner medulla

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8
Q

nephron

A

is the site of urine formation

has four regions
-> glomerular capsule
-> proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
-> nephron loop
-> distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

the DCT empties into the collecting duct

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9
Q

cortex (outer layer)

A

in the cortex region there will be many circular glomeruli (glomerulus = singular) which is a tiny network of blood vessels within the glomerular capsule (aka bowman’s capsule)

-> these 2 structures are call a renal corpuscle

the glomerulus resembles a ball of yarn of capillaries -> this is the site of filtration

the remainder of the cortex is crowded with carious sections through proximal and distal convoluted tubules

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10
Q

medulla (middle layer)

A

consists of fan shaped renal pyramids

contain the nephron loops

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11
Q

renal columns

A

extensions of cortical (outer layer of organ tissue) tissue and house the blood vessels that supply nephrons

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12
Q

renal corpuscles

A

blood is filtered by them to produce filtrate in the glomerular capsule -> the thing that surrounds the glomerulus

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13
Q

filtrate

A

moves through the tubules and the nephron loop

as it travels through each section blood vessels reabsorb useful substances and secrete wastes

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14
Q

glomerulus

A

The glomerulus filters water and small solutes out of the bloodstream. The resulting filtrate contains waste, but also other substances the body needs: essential ions, glucose, amino acids, and smaller proteins.

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15
Q

urine formation

A

occurs in the nephron loops located in the medulla

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16
Q

minor and major calyces (calyx)

A

minor calyx surrounds the renal papillae of each pyramid and collects urine from that pyramid

several minor calyces converge to form of a major calyx

minor calyx -> major calyx -> renal pelvis -> collecting ducts

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17
Q

renal pelvis

A

large cavity in the centre of the kidney

is continuous with the ureter

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18
Q

ureter

A

transport urine to the bladder

leaves the kidney at the hilus

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19
Q

hilus

A

a depression or fissure where vessels or nerves or ducts enter a bodily organ.

the point of entry and exit of renal arteries, renal veins, lymphatic vessels, nerves, and ureters

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20
Q

nephrons

A

produce urine through three main processes -> filtration, reabsorption, secretion

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21
Q

filtration

A

high filtration pressure in the glomerulus forces substances through the filtration membrane (the wall of the glomerulus and the glomerular capsule)

size is a key factors -> water, glucose, nitrogenous wastes, and some ions can pass through
-> blood cells, proteins, and macromolecules cannot

separates materials on the basis of their size

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22
Q

glomerular filtration rate

A

the rate at which materials are filtered through the kidney during urine formation

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23
Q

in lab demonstration of filtration

A

colour of residue was black
colour of filtrate was blue

contents of mixture (table sugar, charcoal = black chunks, copper sulfate = blue in solution)

precipitate was formed in the filtrate to indicate presence of sugar

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24
Q

reabsorption

A

occurs as the filtrate flows through the nephron

substances that the body needs is reabsorbed back into the blood -> glucose and water

begins in the proximal convoluted tubule which majority of the tubular reabsorption occurs, but also occurs through the length of the nephron

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25
Q

peritubular capillaries

A

where reabsorbed substances enter after leaving the tubules

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26
Q

secretion

A

a process in which substances move from the blood to the peritubular capillaries into the filtrate

allows for additional wastes and other materials to leave the body in the urine

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27
Q

how the kidneys balance pH

A

excretes various levels of H+ and OH- ions to help regulate pH

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28
Q

active transport

A

cells lining the tubules of the nephron use active transport to pull molecules out of the filtrate against their concentration gradient

this is so that we can retain small molecules like glucose and amino acids in the blood and ensure they don’t get pulled into the urine

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29
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

Facilitated diffusion is the passive movement of molecules along the concentration gradient.

urea moves into the kidneys this way

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30
Q

osmosis

A

movement from a solution with high concentration of water molecules to a solution with a lower concentration of water molecules

the movement of water into or out of the kidneys depends of the concentration of solutes in the filtrate or blood

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31
Q

hormonal control

A

the amount of urine formed is under hormonal control

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32
Q

ADH

A

antidiuretic hormone is produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary gland

controls the reabsorption of water by the collecting ducts and prevents large swings in water balance, dehydration, and water overload

higher ADH levels = increased water reabsorption, reducing the volume of urine production but increasing its concentration

lower ADH levels = reduce reabsorption of water, large production of dilute urine

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33
Q

osmolarity

A

the release of ADH is regulated by the osmolarity of the blood

it is the concentration of solutes

high osmolarity indicates low availability of water -> leads to the release of ADH

low osmolarity indicates there is abundant water and leads to a decrease in ADH

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34
Q

factors the impact release of ADH

A

pain, low blood pressure, and certain drugs trigger ADH release

alcohol inhibits ADH release -> that is why you feel dehydrated after drinking

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35
Q

aldosterone

A

is produced by the cortex of the adrenal gland and helps to maintain correct concentration of sodium and potassium ions in extracellular fluids

targets the distal parts of the nephrons -> stimulates the reabsorption of sodium ions and thus water

promotes potassium secretion -> due to the function of the protein pump that actively transports sodium into the cell and potassium out

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36
Q

urochrome

A

a yellow pigment produced when hemoglobin is broken down

causes the yellow colour of urine

many disease states produce other pigments and may change the colour of urine

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37
Q

turbidity

A

cloudy urine

indicates alkaline urine, may be associated with a bacterial infection of the urinary tract

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38
Q

physical characteristics of urine

A

colour and transparency
specific gravity
pH
volume

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39
Q

specific gravity

A

weight of urine for a standard volume/ weight of water for a standard volume

water has a specific gravity of 1.000

normal urine has a specific gravity of 1.005 to 1.035

low specific gravity (dilute urine) may occur in patients with diabetes insipidus

high specific gravity (concentrate urine) is most commonly found in dehydration of excessive water loss

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40
Q

diabetes insipidus

A

disease caused by inadequate secretion of ADH or failure of the kidney tubules to respond to ADH

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41
Q

pH of urine

A

is usually slightly acidic with a pH of around 6 (range of 4.5 - 8.0)

diet, medication, or pathological conditions can change pH

42
Q

volume of urine

A

average production of urine is 1-2 L per day

43
Q

polyuria

A

producing excessive urine

> 2.5L per day

44
Q

oliguria

A

inadequate production of urine

<400mL per day

45
Q

glucose (kidneys)

A

reabsorbed in the kidney by the tubules after is passes through the glomerular capsule

max amount the kidneys can reabsorb per day is 180-200mg/100mL

if blood glucose concentration rises above this level than it begins to show up in the urine

46
Q

glycosuria

A

high levels of glucose in urine

diabetes mellitus is the principal cause of glycosuria

47
Q

protein (kidneys)

A

blood plasma proteins (albumin) may appear in urine normally as a result of excessive muscular exertion

proteinuria (protein in urine) also occurs in a number of kidney diseases

higher levels of protein in urine is an indication of disease

48
Q

ketones (kidneys)

A

metabolism of fat produces ketone bodies as a waste product

ketonuria -> ketones in urine

will show up in urine before increasing in the blood

ketonuria is an important signal of body distress

49
Q

bilirubin (kidneys)

A

is formed when hemoglobin is broken down by phagocytic cells in the liver and spleen

is excreted via bile passages to the intestine and reduced to urobilinogen by intestinal bacteria

usually there is no bilirubin in urine, however if the bile duct is blocked by cancer or gallstones, bilirubin cannot be expelled and blood levels rise

will be present in urine when the liver is damaged

50
Q

urobilinogen

A

most is eliminated with feces, but some is absorbed into the bloodstream

1% is excreted by urine

urine urobilinogen is absent whenever there is complete obstruction of biliary ducts -> it cannot form with bile secretion into the intestine

increases with liver disease

51
Q

urinalysis measurments

A

normal patient
- urine bilirubin = negative
- urine urobilinogen = normal

hemolytic jaundice
- urine bilirubin = negative
- urine urobilinogen = increased

liver damage
- urine bilirubin = positive
- urine urobilinogen = increased

severe biliary obstruction
- urine bilirubin = positive
- urine urobilinogen = decreased

52
Q

nitrite

A

if urine has been held in the bladder for a few hours and it contains nitrites is can be presumed that urinary pathogens are present

53
Q

blood (urine)

A

whole erythrocytes (hematuria), hemoglobin from destroyed, hemolyzed RBC (hemoglobinuria), or myoglobin from muscle tissue (myoglobinuria) are all different forms of blood that may be found in urine

more than 8-10 RBC in the field of view under 400x magnification is pathological

54
Q

sediments in urine

A

require centrifugation and microscopic examination

cells -> high RBC count indicates violent exercise, passage of stones, contamination with menstrual blood, high WBC indicate bacterial UTIs,

crystals -> not normally present when urine is voided but form when is cools

casts-> roughly cylindrical structures made up of precipitated protein, assume the shape of the tubule or collecting duct they are formed in

55
Q

different types of casts

A

hyaline casts = consist of protein, are common in healthy urine

cellular casts = formed when cells present in tubules become trapped in the hardening protein, formed of RBC, WBC, and epithelial cells

granular casts = as the cells in cellular casts break down they are referred to as granular casts -> when they have completely disintegrated a waxy cast remains

56
Q

pH scale

A

pH 0 = extremely high in H+ (hydrogen ions) and has no OH- (hydroxyl ions) (acidic)

pH 14 = extremely high in OH- and has no H+ (basic or alkaline)

pH 7 = neutral , concentration of H+ and OH- are the same

each unit of 1 on the pH scale represents a 10-fold difference in H+ or OH- concentration

57
Q

pH of blood

A

the optimal pH is 7.35 to 7.45

58
Q

acidosis

A

pH of body fluids is below 7.35

respiratory acidosis -> caused by inadequate ventilation, reduced elimination of CO2

metabolic acidosis -> results from all conditions other than respiratory that decreases pH

59
Q

alkalosis

A

pH of body fluids above 7.45

respiratory alkalosis -> caused by hyperventilation, high altitude

metabolic alkalosis -> results from all conditions other than respiratory that increases pH

60
Q

buffers

A

body uses chemical buffers to protect itself from major swings in pH

are either a mixture of weak acid or weak base with its conjugate base or conjugate acid

these mixtures resist significant changes in pH because any added acid or base reacts with the buffer instead of the water

can only resist pH changes as long as the acid or base remain

61
Q

strong acids and bases

A

dissociate completely in water to release H+ or OH-

62
Q

weak acids and bases

A

only partially dissociate

63
Q

optimal buffering range

A

the range of pH values that each buffer can work in to resist the change of pH

64
Q

carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

A

plays a major role in regulating pH in the extracellular fluids

consists of 2 compounds
-> sodium bicarbonate is a weak base that is a proton (H+) acceptor
-> carbonic acid is a weak acid that is a proton donor

carbonic acid (H2CO3) is readily formed in the body from CO2 and water -> provides relatively few H+ to the ECF when the pH of the ECF is neutral, if it falls the carbonic acid will ionize into a hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion and replace the hydrogen ions,

65
Q

protein buffer system

A

proteins interact with H+ through acidic and basic functional groups

functions in both the intracellular fluids and extracellular fluids

66
Q

phosphate buffer system

A

the major buffering system in the intercellular fluids, also an important buffer for urine

using phosphate ions which can bind multiple H+ ions to regulate pH

67
Q

carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer equation

A

CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3-

68
Q

phenolphthalein

A

a pH indicators

bright pink in basic solutions
colourless in acidic

69
Q

diploid

A

each cell contains two complete sets of chromosomes -> one from each parent

70
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

two chromosomes of a pair, carry genes for the same characteristics

71
Q

meiosis

A

takes place only in the reproductive structures of organisms

these cells only possess half the original number of chromosome (one from each homologous pair)

these cells are haploid and are called gametes

72
Q

fertilization

A

restores the diploid state of cells

73
Q

stages of meiosis

A

interphase -> chromosomal material (DNA) is duplicated so each chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids joined at a centromere
-> meiosis I (reduction division) -> meiosis II (equational division)

74
Q

2n =6

A

6 chromosome are drawn

2n means that there is a complete homologous pair from each parent

75
Q

compare contrast meiosis vs mitosis

A

compare:
- produce new cells
- similar basic steps
- both go through interphase
- start with a single parent cell

contrast:
- mitosis = 4 stages, meiosis = 8 stages
- mitosis= happens in somatic cells, meiosis = happens in germ cells
- mitosis = produces 2 diploid daughter cells, meiosis = produces 4 haploid daughter cells
- mitosis = genetic variation doesn’t change, meiosis = genetic variation increases

76
Q

prophase I

A

homologous chromosome condense and come together in pairs to form tetrads (synapsis)

crossing over occurs

nuclear envelope breaks down

centrioles have divided, daughter centrioles begin migrating to opposite sides of the cell,

spindles begin to form

77
Q

metaphase I

A

tetrads line up in the centre of the cell, along the equatorial plane

each homologous pair of the tetrad lay separate from each other

spindles attach to the chromosomes

78
Q

anaphase I

A

homologous pairs separate and one chromosome moves to each pole of the cell

each chromosome still consists of two chromatids

79
Q

telophase I

A

chromosome uncoil

each nucleus has a haploid number of chromosomes -> reduction division has taken place

80
Q

meiosis II

A

prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II are essentially the same steps that occur in mitotic division

final result will be 4 daughter cells with haploid number of chromosomes

81
Q

testes

A

where sperm develops

82
Q

epididymis

A

immature sperm move from the testis to the coiled tube of the epididymis to mature

the epididymis is wrapped around each testis

83
Q

seminal glands and prostate glands

A

both provide nutrients for the sperm, enzymes and other molecules that increase movement or fertilization ability of the sperm

84
Q

ova (ovum)

A

are stored and mature in the ovaries

85
Q

oocyte

A

one oocyte is released from the rupture of a mature follicle, the oocyte is swept into the uterine tube and travels to the uterus

86
Q

spermatogenesis

A

the production of spermatazoa (sperm)

spermatogonium undergo continuous mitosis to produce a primary spermatid and to regenerate the spermatogonia stem cell

primary spermatids undergo meiosis I to produce secondary spermatids which undergo meiosis II to produce spermatids

spermatids mature to become sperm

87
Q

meiosis in males

A

produce 4 functional sperm

88
Q

tunica albuginea in testis

A

make up the connective tissue for the testis

thick white capsule extends inwards and divides the testis into lobules which contain the seminiferous tubule

89
Q

oogenesis

A

before birth
- diploid oogonia undergo mitotic divisions to produce primary oocytes

oogonium -> mitosis -> primary oocyte -> meiosis I -> secondary oocyte and first polar body -> polar body divides into second polar bodies and the secondary oocyte only completes meiosis II if it is fertilized

90
Q

compare contrast spermatogenesis vs oogenesis

A

compare:
- located in the reproductive organs
- produce haploid gametes
- both are involved in fertilization

contrast:
- sperm can move, ovas cannot
- sperm = growth phase is short, ova = growth phase is extended
- 4 sperm produced, only one haploid ovum and two polar bodies
- sperm is produced everyday, only one ovum is produced one a month

91
Q

primordial follicle

A

a single layer of cells that supports the oocyte during oogenesis

surrounds each primary ooctye

92
Q

primary oocytes

A

begin meiosis I before birth but arrest during prophase I and do not complete meiosis I until after puberty

93
Q

primary follicles

A

primordial follicles mature into primary follicles -> consists of a primary oocyte and a layer of cuboidal or columnar follicular cells

94
Q

secondary follicle

A

the follicular cells from the primary follicle divide to form more layers -> becomes a secondary follicle

95
Q

antral follicle

A

a fluid filled space called the antrum appears after the secondary follicle is formed

96
Q

secondary oocyte

A

as the follicle matures the oocyte will complete meiosis I

97
Q

ovulation

A

the mature follicle ruptures to release the secondary oocyte

98
Q

layers of the ovary

A

germinal epithelium and tunica albuginea

99
Q

corpus albicans

A

scar tissue on the ovary marking the site of a ruptured follicle

100
Q

fertilization

A

usually occurs in the uterine tubes

the oocyte engulfs the sperms nucleus

results in the formation of a single new diploid cell called a zygote

BIOL 133 (5 decks)

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