Midterm 1 Flashcards
1
Q
define
Attitudes
and three components!
A
Attitudes: positive or negative evaluations of objects of thought
3 components:
1. cognitive -> beliefs and ideas
2. affective -> emotions and feelings
3. behavioral -> predisposition to act
2
Q
list
When do attitudes predict behavior?
3 indicators!
A
- Strength of attitude
- Accessibility of attitude
- Ambivalence of attitude
- behavior will also be shaped by perceived expectations of others and situational constraints *
3
Q
define
Cognitive Dissonance
A
When attitude/behavior A conflicts with attitude/behavior B it creates cognitive dissonance
We cope with this dissonance by creating a rationale (most often changing our attitude) in order to cope
4
Q
describe
Leon Festinger
A
- gave participants a boring task
- half were given $1 to lie and say the task was fun to the next participant, the other half were given $20
- when asked to rate how fun the task was, those in the $1 condition were more likely to say it was fun
explanation: $1 is higher dissonance. Believing “I’m an honest person” and then lying creates dissonance -> cope by believing the task was more fun than it was
5
Q
define
Persuasion
A
an attempt to influence a person’s beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, or behaviors
6
Q
list
Process of Persuasion
(there’s four)
A
- Source factors (who)
- Message factors (what)
- Channel factors (by what means)
- Reciever factors (to whom)
7
Q
define
Reciprocity
A
Mutual exchange of privileges
1. be first to give
2. make it personalized
3. make it unexpected
8
Q
list
Methods of Persuasion
there’s three! (reciprocity not included)
A
- Foot-in-the-Door: start small, then ask for bigger
- Door-in-the-Face: ask for something big/unrealistic, then ask for something smaller
- Lowballing: starting with an attractive offer, then adding on extra charges to hike it up
9
Q
define
Stereotype
A
a generalization about a group of people, where identical characteristics are assigned to all members
10
Q
true or false:
stereotypes stem from the law of least effort
A
True! The law of least effort states that the world is too complicated for us to have unique beliefs about everything, so we’ve gotta simplify
11
Q
define
Prejudice
A
a hostile or negative attitude toward people based on their membership to a group
12
Q
define
Discrimination
A
unjustified harmful action based on membership to a group
13
Q
list + define
Two Causes of Prejudice
A
- Social Categorization
-> us versus them mindset - In-Group Bias
-> tendency to evaluate in-group members more
positively than outgroup members
14
Q
define
In-Group vs Out-Group
A
In-Group: a group which we belong to and identify with
Out-Group: a group we don’t identify with
15
Q
describe
Tajfel Study
A
- Participants were randomly allocated into two groups
-> They evaluated people in their group more positively
than people outside of their group - When given the option of
a) Recieve $2 for your group, $1 for the other group
b) Recieve $3 for your group, $4 for the other group - they were more likely to choose option A because it meant the other group would receive less money
16
Q
define
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
A
When we have stereotypes or a perception of a person, we treat them differently -> this leads to them acting differently, reinforcing our perception/stereotypes
17
Q
define
Stereotype Threat
A
apprehension/fear by members of a minority group that they might behave in a way that confirms stereotypes
-> effect is stronger when they’re reminded of their minority status
-> leads to a decrease in performance
18
Q
What’s the opposite of stereotype threat?
A
Stereotype boost!
19
Q
define
Causal Attributions
and two influences!
A
How one explains the behavior/circumstances of another person/group
Two Influences:
1. Dispositional Factors
2. Situational Factors
20
Q
define
Just-World Attributions
A
A deep-seated belief that the world is a just and fair place, so people deserve the circumstances they’re in
21
Q
define
Fundamental Attribution Error
A
Overestimating the influences of dispositional factors on a person’s situation
22
Q
define
Ultimate Attribution Error
A
When in group members attribute:
a) negative outgroup behavior to dispositional causes
b) positive outgroup behavior to luck/”a special case”
23
Q
describe
Stanley Milgram
A
- Studied obedience
- Participants were assigned the role of “teacher”
- were instructed (and encouraged later on) by the experimenter to shock the “learner” (a confederate), each time they got an answer wrong, and to continuously increase the level of shocks
- over 50% of people went to 450 volts
24
Q
list
Key Factors in Milgram’s Study
A
- Psychological distance between teacher and experimenter
- psychological distance between teacher and learner
- [apparent] credibility of lab and experimenter
25
# define
Social Comparison
| and the two types!
We compare ourselves to others to boost our self-esteem and evaluate ourselves
Upward: comparing to someone superior
Downward: comparing to someone inferior
26
# define
Conformity
when people yield to real or imagined social pressure
27
# describe
Solomon Asch
- studied conformity
- one participant, the rest of them were confederates
- tasked to figure out which line was the length of the target line
- sometimes, every one of the confederates would say an incorrect answer
- people conformed and said the wrong answer with the confederates 37% of the trials
28
# list
Two Key Factors of Solomon Asch Studies
1. Group unanimity
-> if one other person broke the unanimity, people were less likely to conform
2. Group size
-> the more people (3-4+), the more likely people were to conform
29
# list
Why do we conform?
| three reasons!
- normative influence: people conform to sociall norms for fear of negative consequences
- informational influences: people look to others for guidance abouthow to behave in ambiguous situations
- deindividuation: losing one's sense of personal identity in a group
## Footnote
social contagion (textbook) = informational infleunces (lecutre)
30
# list
effects of deindividuation
- spending less time thinking about right vs wrong
- larger groups increase anonymity and decrease responsibility
- become outwardly focused
- increased liklihood of antisocial behavior
- may increase physiological arousal
| uniforms enhance group identity!
31
# describe
🎃👻Halloween Study👻🎃
- children were instructed to take one candy only
- conditions: anonymous vs non anonymous and group vs individual
- alone and anonymous: ~?? (my notes are not legible) took extra
- group and anonymous: ~57% took extra
- if 1st child steals: 83% anonymous, 67% non anonymous
32
# define
social roles
shared expectations about how particular people are expected to behave within a group
33
# define
social norms
expectations of behavior for an entire group
34
# describe
Philip Zimbardo
| Stanford Prison Experiment!
- participants were put into a prison scenario -> were assigned roles of guard or prisoner
- guards began to act sadistically towards the prisoners, led to the prisoners showing signs of emotional disturbance
- the experiment ended up being terminated early
35
# describe
Criticisms of the Stanford Prison Experiment
- participants may have been responding to demand characteristics
- some prisoners admitted to going along and playing it up
- people who sign up for a study like that may be geared towards sadistic behavior
36
# define
Groupthink
an emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking
| when groups combine knowledge it's shared knowledge, no net gain of info
37
Treatment for Groupthink
have dissent, a devil's advocate!
38
# define
Bystander Effect
the prescence of others makes people less likely to help
39
# define
Pluralistic Ignorance
error of assuming that no one in the group percieves things as we do
ex. you dont understand something in class, but no one else is asking anything so they must all understand
40
# define
Altruism
| plus situational factors of why we help!
helping others for nonselfish resons
situational factors: more likely to help when we can't leave the situation. also dependent on on the characteristics of the victim, our mood, and conformity
41
# describe
Good Samaritin Study
ok so i dont quite remember but i think it goes like
- participants are told they need to give a talk on the good samaritan tale from the bible
- two conditions: need to walk to the area for the talk ASAP vs having time to spare
- otw there they'd pass a confederate slumped over on the sidewalk
- results: people didnt help when in a rush, but helped when they had time to spare
42
# define
Aggression
behavior intended to harm others
43
# list
situational and individual influences on aggression
situaional:
- interpersonal provocation
- frustration
- media influence
- aggressive cues
- arousal
- drugs
- temperature (warm)
individual:
- personality traits
- sex differences
- cultural differences
44
# define
Developmental Psychology
study of how behavoir and mental processes change over our lifetimes
45
# describe
cross-sectional design
| and cohort effects!
cross-sectional design: examining people of different ages at a single point in time
cohort effects: effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals growing up at the same time
| ex: boomers vs gen z computer knowledge
46
How to counter cohort effects?
use a longitudinal design!
-> examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions overtime
- costly and time consuming
- attrition: participants dropping out of the study
47
# define
Post Hoc Fallacy
Assuming that because A came before B, A caused B
48
# list and define
Two Myths of Development
1. Infant determinism: experiences within the first three years of life are more influential than later ones
2. Childhood fragility: children are delicate little creatues, who are easily damaged
49
# list + define
Nature or Nurture?
| (three things)
1. Nature via Nurture: tendency of people with certain genetic predispositions to seek out/create our own environments
2. Gene-environment interaction: effects of geners depend on the environment in which they're expressed
3. Gene expression: activation + deactivation of genes by environmental experiences throughout development
50
# describe
Development in the Womb
zygote (fertilized egg) -> blastocyst (ball of identical cells) -> embryo (cells begin to differentiate -> fetus
51
# list
Obstacles to Development
| there's three!
1. exposure to hazardous environmental influences
2. Genetic disorders
3. premature birth
52
# define
Teratogens
external factors that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development
(ex. viruses, illnesses, chemicals, meds, drugs)
- highly sensitive during embryo stage
53
# define
motor behaviors
bodily motions that occur as a result of self initiated force
54
what reflexes are infants born with?
sucking and rooting
55
What influences motor development?
- physical maturation
- culture differences (is the kid swaddled all the time?)
56
# describe
Basic Changes During Puberty
| this one is longish... idk if we need to know this - it was in the text
**Puberty**: sexual maturation
-> changes in **primary sex characteristics** (gentials & organs)
-> changes in **secondary sex characteristics** (pubic hair, breasts, etc)
**menarche**: onset of menstruation in girls
**spermarche**: first ejaculation in boys
- timinig of puberty is influenced by environments and genetics
57
when is our physical peak?
early 20s
58
# describe
Fertility & Aging
| once again idk if we need this
**menopause**: end of menstruation, estrogen levels drop
- in men: gradual decline in sperm production, ejaculation and erection are harder to achieve
59
# list
Parenting Styles
| there's four! -> just list the names, don't describe just yet ;)
1. Permissive Style
2. Authoritatian
3. Autoritative
4. Neglecting/Disengaged
60
# describe
Permissive Style
| parenting!
- high warmth/responsiveness
- low expectations
- low rule clarity/consistency
- low communication
-> children are more immature, more dependent and do less well in school
61
# describe
Authoritarian Style
| parenting!
- low warmth/responsiveness
- high expectations
- high rule clarity/consistency
- low communication
-> children have lower self esteem, more aggressive, low social skills and lower academic performance
62
# describe
Authoritative Style!
| parenting!
- high warmth/responsiveness
- high expectations
- high rule clarity/consistency
- high communication
-> children have higher self esteem, more independent, perform better in school, and do less drugs
63
# describe
Neglecting/Disengaged Style
| parenting!
- low warmth/responsiveness
- low expectations
- low rule clarity/consistency
- low communication
-> insecure attachment, delinquent behavior, less friends
64
# discuss >:)
Media Effects on Development
| idk theres a study to talk about
- avoid screens under the age of two!
- when watching tv, the content and the duration of what the kids are watching were the key predictors of cognitive and language delays
**McBeth-Williams Study**
- investigated a town before & after TV was introduced, saw these changes:
- greater sex roles identification by children
- leisure activities declined in all age groups
- child cognition declines
- reading fluency decreased in grades 2 & 3
- schoolyward aggression increased by 2x
65
# Describe
Role of the Father
| idk there's 4
1. less attentive + affectionate
2. less time with baby
3. more time in physical play
4. the preferred playmate
66
# describe
Effects of Divorce
- not much long-term emotional damage
- effects depend on the severity of conflict before the divorce (ex. if there was little conflict, then the divorce was unexpected and had less of an impact - versus - parents constantly fighting, divorce becomes expected/a relief)
- can have neg impacts based on the nature of it
67
# describe/list/idk
Transitions in Adulthood
| listen i didnt really read 10.4 yeehaw
- moving out, going to school, finding a career, finding a partner, having kids
- these can all cause stress (shocker thank you psych textbook i had no idea)
- and also obviously people can vary greatly from this "traditional"/"normal" life path
- midlife crisis
- empty nest syndrome
68
# define
Gerontology
scientific study of aging from maturity to old age
69
# list + describe
Ways of Conceptualizing Old Age
| didnt read this part either i wont lie
**Biological age**: estimate of a person's age in terms of biological functioning
**Psychological Age**: a person's mental attitudes and agility, capacity to deal with the stresses of an ever changing environment
**Functional Age**: person's ability to function in given roles in society
**Social Age**: whether people behave in accord with the social behaviors appropriate for their age
70
# define
Individuality
as individuals age, differences between them are magnified as a result of personality, physical function, life experiences, and opportunities
71
# list
interactive effects on aging
| 5
- psychological
- physical
- financial
- social
- socialcultural & historical
72
# define
Stereotype Embodiment
proposes that stereotypes are embodied when their assimilation from the surrounding culture leads to self-definition, that, in turn, influence functioning & health!
top down and overtime
73
# define
Attachment
close, emotional bond between infant and caregiver
| shows around 6-8 months!
74
# describe
Harlow's Wire vs Cloth Mother Study
- monkeys were separated from their mothers
- 1/2 were fed from a wire mother, 1/2 from a cloth mother
- when monkeys were startled, they were more likely to run towards the cloth mother even if it wasn't the one feeding them
shows that attachment isn't only due to providing food, supports the idea of contact comfort: positive emotions afforded from touch
75
# describe
John Bowlby's View of Attachment
he proposed attachment can be explained by evolutionary theory
- there's a biological basis for attachment
- babies are dependent for survival, and parents care for and protect child so they can raise and reach reproductive age
76
# describe
Ainsworth's Strange Situation
children were placed in a room with toys + their mother
1. looked at how much exploration the child did throughout
2. caregiver leaves, looked at the child's reaction
3. stranger enters, looked at the child's reaction to that
4. caregiver came back, looked at the child's reaction
77
# list
Attachment Styles
| there's 4! don't describe, just list
1. secure attachment
2. insecure-anxious attachment
3. insecure-avoidant attachment
4. insecure-disorganized attachment
78
# describe
Secure Attachment
- child separates from the caregiver and explores
- seeks comfort and is easily consoled when upset
- doesn't avoid contact
- easily soothed when reunited with caregiver
- prefers caregiver to stranger
+ this attachment stems from parents responding to the child in the right way, at the right time
79
# describe
Insecure-Anxious-Ambivalent Attachmentt
- little exploration, wary of stranger
- very upset at separation from caregiver
- not easily comforted when the caregiver returns and soothes
- may be angry at reunion
- stems from parents being inconsistent and not responding properly
80
# describe
insecure-avoidant attachment
- avoids contact with caregiver after reunion
- doesn't seek contact with mom
- doesnt resist contact from mom
- shows no preference for mom or strange
81
# describe
insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment
- dazed, confusion, apprehenshion
- contradictory behavior
82
# list
Criticisms of Attachment Styles
- not a consistent indicator of attachment
- attachment can change overtime, especially if the home environment changes
- attachment styles can be different with different caregivers
83
# describe
Long Term Consequences of Attachment
| hint: it's a longitudinal study!
- followed children growing up over 26 years
at summer camp:
- secure: confidence, social skills, positive emotions, friendships, complex play
- insecure: isolated, more passive, hyper, and/or aggressive
As adults:
- secure: easy to be close with others, have trusting relationships, no fear of abandonment
- anxious: volatile relationships, preocupied with love and worries of rejection
- avoidant: have trouble getting close to others, lack of intamicy
84
Why do attachment styles caused later life consequences?
attachments provide the basis for adult expectations regarding social relationships
85
# describe
Kohlberg's Stage Theory
| 3 stages - moral reasoning!
1. Pre-conventional (before 9 yrs): right and wrong is based on reward/punshiment
2. Conventional (9-13yrs): right and wrong is based on social approval, beliefs that rules are necessary to society and must be followed
3. Post-conventional (13+): believes societal rules are falliable, and focuses more on justice and equity
86
# list
Criticism's of Kohlberg's Stage Theory
| there's 5!
1. stage theory issues
2. moderate correlation with moral behavior
3. cultural bias -> westernized samples
4. gender bias -> samples were male
5. causal directon (some moral decisions are based on our intuition, or snap judgements with emotions. example: incest.)
87
# list + describe
Erikson's Developmental Stages
| there's 8 and I hate them all
1. **Infancy - trust vs mistrust**: developing general security, optimism, and trust in others
2. **Toddler - autonomy vs shame and doubt**: developing sense of independence and self reliance, taking setbacks in stride
3. **Early child - initiative vs guilt**: developing initiative in exploring and manipulating their environment
4. **Middle child - industry vs inferiority**: enjoyment and mastery of the developmental tasks of childhood in and out of school
5. **Adolescence - identity vs role confusion**: achievement of a stable and satisfying sense of role and direction
6. **Young Adult - intimacy vs isolation**: development of the ability to maintain intimate personal relationships
7. **Adulthood - generativity vs stagnation**: satisfaction of personal and familial needs supplemented by development of interest in the welfare of others
8. **Aging - ego integrity vs despair**: recognizing and adjusting to aging and the prospect of death with a sense of satisfaction about the past
88
# describe
Vygotsky's Theory
| the scaffolfing one
Vygotsky believed that social and cultural influences had a stronger impact on learning
he believed that children have different phases where they're receptive to learning new skills, and that with the guidance of parents/peers they can learn to do it independently
- no stages, all children learn at different rates!
89
# define
scaffolding
learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in learning and then gradually remove it
90
# define
zone of proximal development
phase in which children are receptive to learning a new skill, but not successful at it -> they need instruction
91
# define
Assimilation
interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures (schemas) without change
92
# define
Accomodation
forming new or changing existing mental structures (schemas) to explain something new
93
# define
Schema
an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object, concept, or event
94
# describe
Jean Piaget
| ideas + LIST 4 stages
- believed children activley explore the world, and cognitive development is a result of interaction with the environment and brain maturation
1. sensorimotor stage (0-2)
2. preoperational stage (2-7)
3. concrete operational stage (7-11)
4. formal operational stage (12+)
95
# describe
Sensorimotor Stage
| 0-2 years old c:
- innate reflexes (rooting, sucking)
- appearances of symbolic thought
- object permanence slowly develops
- deferred imitation slowly develops
96
# describe
Preoperational Stage
| 2-7 years
- challenges thinking about the physical world
- conservation -> tend to centrate
- issues with reversibility
- issues with hierarchical classification
- display egocentricism
- animism: believing everything is alive
- developing theory of mind
97
# describe
Concrete Operational Stage
| 7 - 11 years
- de-centration
- understand reversibility
- decline in egocentricism
- better understanding of hierarchical classifications
98
# describe
Formal Operational Stage
| 12+ years
- abstract, systematic, logical, and reflective thought
99
# list
Criticsm's of Piaget's work
1. underestimation of cognitive development
2. individual differences in development (eg. mixing of stages)
3. environmental influences on timetable
100
# define
object permanence
knowing that a person/object still exists even when you can't see them
101
# define
symbolic representation
using symbolic materials to represent real objects
(ex. legos as a table)
| appears around 2 years! (thanks google)
102
# define
egocentrism
a child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view (their way is the way everyone feels)
103
# define
theory of mind
ability to reason about what other people might believe, think or feel
104
How to test for theory of mind?
three mountain problem!
| im too lazy to describe it sorry
105
# describe
Impact of aging on cognitive function
- memory and processing speed decline
- free recall declines, cued recall and recognition intact
- little decline in remembering important life info
- accumulated knowledge and intelligence increase, so does problem solving skills
