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Research Methods in Counseling > Mid-term Prep > Flashcards

Mid-term Prep Flashcards

1
Q

Experimental Research

A

manipulated variables

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2
Q

Non-experimental Research

A

observational recording of data

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3
Q

Ex Post Facto Research

A

(After the Fact) causal-comparative: looks to the past for causes of current observations

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4
Q

Causal-Comparative Research

A

Ex Post Facto: looks to the past for causes of current observations

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5
Q

TRUE experiment is indicated by…

A

Random Assignment in experimental studies

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6
Q

_________ signifies experimental conditions

A

use of TREATMENTS

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7
Q

What is required in order to draw a cause and effect relationship?

A

Experiment

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8
Q

Independent variables

A

manipulations done by experimenter

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9
Q

Dependent Variables

A

Outcomes or results

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10
Q

Hypothesis

A

prediction of the outcome of the study/what you think will happen

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11
Q

Type 1 Error

A

Rejecting the Null Hypothesis when the Null Hypothesis is true

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12
Q

Type 2 Error

A

Rejecting the Research Hypothesis when the Research Hypothesis in True

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13
Q

Alpha

A

p = .05 or p = .01

chances of results being purely randomly caused

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14
Q

Power

A

rejecting the Null Hypothesis and accepting the Research Hypothesis when the research hypothesis is the true hypothesis

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15
Q

How to Maximize Power

A
  1. design powerful study
  2. increase the significance level
  3. Increase the sample size
  4. Employ powerful statistics
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16
Q

Two ways of designing powerful study

A
  1. manualize treatment

2. use vastly different treatments for comparison

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17
Q

Most powerful statistics are…

A

Parametric statistics

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18
Q

Levels of statistics

A
  1. Nominal
  2. Ordinal
  3. Interval
  4. Ratio
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19
Q

What are Descriptive Statistics?

A 
mathematical procedures for:
1. organizing
2. summarizing
3. describing
characteristics of a sample of data
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20
Q

What are Inferential Statistics?

A

mathematical procedures for deciding whether a sample relationship represents a relationship that actually exists in the population

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21
Q

What is Effect Size?

A

how consistently differences in the dependent scores (outcome scores) are caused by changes in the Independent Variable (IV)

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22
Q

What is Coefficient of Determination?

A

variance in the Dependent Variable (DV) that can be accounted for by variance in the Independent Variable (IV)

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23
Q

Definition of THEORY

A

a unified explanation for discrete observations that might otherwise be viewed as unrelated or contradictory

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24
Q

Two Functions of Research in Relation to Theory

A
  1. To test hypothesis derived from an existing theory

2. To provide observations and conclusions on which researchers can INDUCE theory

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25
Q

Three ways to test hypotheses derived from an existing theory

A
  1. researchers DEDUCE hypotheses that are consistent with the theory
  2. IF hypothesis is confirmed, it lends support to the theory
  3. IF hypothesis is NOT confirmed, it calls into question the theory (or parts of it)
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26
Q

IF a theory is called into question, what do the theorists do?

A

Theorists consider reformulating the theory to account for the discrepancy

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27
Q

Grounded Theory is…

A
  1. INDUCTIVE Method of analysis that can lead to theories of behavior.
  2. Found in Qualitative Analysis
  3. Evolutionary
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28
Q

No theory of human behavior is universal therefore…. (2)

A
  1. researchers usually examine trends across groups in order to test or develop theories
  2. Examine individuals or subgroups who do not perform as predicted
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29
Q

Quantitative Planning…

A
  1. Deductive approach

2. Review Lit leads to hypothesis

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30
Q

Qualitative Planning…

A
  1. Inductive approach

2. Observations/interviews lead to decisions on what further data is needed

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31
Q

Quantitative Measures produce…

A

numerical data

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32
Q

Qualitative Measures produce…

A

words

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33
Q

In Quantitative, can you adjust instruments during the study?

A

NO

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34
Q

In Qualitative, can you adjust instruments during the study?

A

YES

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35
Q

Quantitative participants…

A

large sample sizes

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36
Q

Qualitative participants…

A

small sample sizes

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37
Q

Quantitative Sampling method…

A

Random

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38
Q

Qualitative Sampling method…

A

purposive

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39
Q

Quantitative Data analysis…

A

statistics summarize all participants

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40
Q

Qualitative Data analysis…

A

Cite individual reponses

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41
Q

Quantitative Results…

A

generalized to one or more populations

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42
Q

Qualitative Results…

A

limits conclusions to only individuals directly studied

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43
Q

Quantitative Studies strive for…

A

objectivity

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44
Q

Qualitative Studies believe…

A

all observational processes are inherently subjective and open to interpretation

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45
Q

Quantitative vs. Qualitative major difference…

A

Numbers vs. discussion of themes/trends in words

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46
Q

Q vs. Q

Nature of the Question…

A

Quant: numbers easily collected about it
Qual: words describe it best

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47
Q

Q vs. Q

Little Known about topic…

A

Quant: Not preferred
Qual: Preferred

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48
Q

Q vs. Q

Participants belong to closed culture…

A

Quant: not preferred
Qual: Preferred

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49
Q

Q vs. Q

Participants available for limited time

A

Quant: preferred
Qual: NOT preferred

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50
Q

Q vs. Q

Time and funds limited

A

Quant: preferred
Qual: NOT preferred

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51
Q

Q vs. Q

Audience requires hard numbers

A

Quant: preferred
Qual: NOT preferred

52
Q

Q vs. Q

Which captures emotions better?

A

Qualitative

53
Q

Q vs. Q

Which captures hard to get to populations better?

A

Qualitative

54
Q

Two Steps of Purposive Sampling

A
  1. identify a research topic of interest

2. Seek individuals who are likely to have relevant information

55
Q

Number of selection criteria use in Qual

A

one

56
Q

Purposive sampling is…

A

sample picked on purpose of people who have information on the issue being researched

57
Q

Number of selection criterion use in Purposive CRITERION Sampling…

A

more than one criterion to choose the people that end up in the sample

58
Q

Convenience sample is…

A

NOT purposive but rather just whoever happens to be available to you

59
Q

Two options for when to collect demographic information…

A
  1. at the onset of the study

2. after participants have been selected

60
Q

Two reasons for collecting demographic information

A
  1. to help researcher/reader to “see’ the participants

2. to describe the sample in detail for readers of the research

61
Q

Use single source sampling if…

A

interested in applying results to single location

62
Q

Use diverse sources in sampling if…

A

interested in applying results to many locations

63
Q

Qualitative researchers usually use smaller samples than quantitative researchers for three reasons…

A
  1. Qual data collection is more expensive
  2. Qual data collection is more time-consuming
  3. Qual researchers are less interested in testing for statistical significance
64
Q

Three criterion used to determine sample size…

A
  1. As the data is collected, researcher conducts a preliminary, informal analysis, noting the major and minor themes that are emerging
  2. Note the point at which several additional participants fail to respond with new information that leads to the identification of additional themes
  3. No additional participants are sought
65
Q

How do you know when saturation is reached?

A

When you are not getting any new information from interviews and questionnaires

66
Q

Phenomenological approach is..

A

an examination of perceptions

67
Q

Two Settings for the Semi-structured Interview

A
  1. Face-to-face

2. Tape-recorded

68
Q

Two components of an Interview Protocol

A
  1. written directions for conducting the interview

2. Standard set of predetermined questions to ask of all participants

69
Q

Four components of Semi-structured Interview Format.

A
  1. rapport building questions
  2. Broad, open-ended questions
  3. Increasingly specific questions
  4. Demographic information
70
Q

What makes the semi-structured interview?

A
  1. Interviewer does not need to ask ONLY predetermined questions
71
Q

When to ask non-predetermined questions in a semi-structured interview…

A
  1. If participant does not seem to understand a question
  2. If a response is too terse
  3. To probe for additional information
72
Q

Semi-structured interviewer characteristics

A
  1. skilled in interviewing

2. unbiased achieved through self-disclosure

73
Q

Five Strengths of Semi-structured Interview

A
  1. can establish rapport and motivate respondents
  2. can clarify the questions
  3. can read nonverbal cues (eye contact, body posture)
  4. can use visual aids
  5. rich data can be obtained
74
Q

Six Weaknesses of Semi-structured Interview

A
  1. takes personal time
  2. costs more when covering wide geographic region
  3. respondents may be concerned about confidentiality
  4. can introduce interviewer bias
  5. interviewers need to be trained
  6. respondents can terminate at any time
75
Q

Four components of Focus Group Format

A
  1. 6-12 participants
  2. Lead by a facilitator or moderator
  3. Lasts for about an hour
  4. Two or more focus groups are typically used in a study
76
Q

Two Intents of Focus Groups

A
  1. discussion of a topic to gain insight into opinions, attitudes and experiences
  2. perceptual changes of the individual within a social context
77
Q

The major strength of Focus Group

A

Social Context: Presence of others changes perception of individual

78
Q

Three Roles of focus group facilitator

A
  1. describes the topic and tries to create non-threatening environments
  2. Uses a predetermined set of questions (questioning route) to ensure that all relevant aspects of the topic are discussed
  3. Probes for additional information when necessary
79
Q

Three strengths of Focus Groups

A
  1. reveals the evolution of perceptions in a social context
  2. relatively inexpensive
  3. Provides fairly dependable data within a short period of time
80
Q

Weakness of Focus Groups

A

Requires a facilitator skilled in group work

81
Q

Two components of Observation Format

A
  1. direct, physical observation

2. Field Research

82
Q

Ethnography is…

A

when the focus is on cultural issues

83
Q

Three Strengths of Observation

A
  1. data obtained is of events as they normally occur
  2. easier to note the effects of environmental influence on specific outcomes
  3. Easier to observe certain groups of individuals
84
Q

Six Weaknesses of Observation

A
  1. necessary for observer to be physically present
  2. Moods, feelings and attitudes must be guessed
  3. cognitive thought processes not captured
  4. slow, tedious and expensive
  5. Observer fatigue
  6. observers must be trained
85
Q

Five Observer Biases and Solutions…

A
  1. recording errors/check sheet
  2. memory lapses/ check sheet
  3. Errors in interpreting/ participant interviews
  4. fatigue and boredom/ limit observation time
  5. Multiple observers/ establish inter observer reliability
86
Q

Respondent Bias and Solutions

A

Bias: Behave differently because being observed
Solutions:
1. observe unobtrusively
2. observe over longer period of time and discount early observations

87
Q

Four Methods of Quality Control in Data Collection

A
  1. Data Triangulation
  2. Methods Triangulation
  3. Researcher Triangulation
  4. Audio Tape & Transcribe
88
Q

Data Triangulation

A
  1. uses multiple SOURCES for obtaining data

2. to the extent that the information obtained is similar, the data can be said to be corroborated

89
Q

Methods Triangulation

A
  1. uses multiple METHODS to collect data

2. To the extent that the various methods provide similar information, the data can be said to corroborated

90
Q

Researcher Triangulation

A
  1. A team of researchers with diverse backgrounds
  2. Each member of the team collects and analyzes data
  3. Reduces the possibility that the results represent only the idiosyncratic views of one individual
91
Q

Audio Tape & Transcribe

A
  1. conduct oral interviews or Focus Groups
  2. Audio-record and transcribe
  3. Checking the accuracy of a transcription helps to ensure the quality of the data
92
Q

Three Methods in Quality Control of Data Analysis

A
  1. Inter Observer/ Inter Coder Agreement
  2. Peer Review/Auditor
  3. Member Checking
93
Q

Inter Observer/ Inter Coder Agreement

A
  1. In analyzing data, each member of the research team works independently
  2. Then they compare their results
  3. To the extent that the team members agree, the results are dependable (reliable)
  4. If the team members disagree then they discuss until consensus reached
94
Q

Peer Review/ Auditor

A
  1. uses an outside expert to:
    a. examine the process used to collect data
    b. resulting data
    c. conclusions drawn
  2. Peer/auditor provides feedback to the researcher
95
Q

Member Checking

A
  1. based on the idea that the participants are ‘members’ of the research team
  2. have participants/members review the results of the analysis
  3. participants/members tell researchers if results ‘ring true’
  4. If results do not ‘ring true’, then adjustments can be made in the description of the results
96
Q

Inductive Methods of Qualitative Data Analysis

A
  1. collect data
  2. analyze data
  3. derive theories that explain the patterns noted in the response of participants
97
Q

Deductive Methods of Quantitative Data Analysis

A
  1. examine what is known
  2. deduce theories
  3. test theories by collecting data
98
Q

Three Steps of Grounded Theory Approach

A
  1. Open Coding
  2. Axial Coding
  3. Core Category
99
Q

Four Components of Open Coding

A
  1. Verbatim transcripts examined for distinct, separate segments
  2. Segments identified by type and ‘coded’ with category names
  3. subcategories are developed when possible
  4. make preliminary notes on any overarching themes noted
100
Q

Axial Coding

A
  1. transcripts of interviews are re-examined with the purpose of identifying relationships between categories and themes identified during open coding
  2. look for relationships between sorted categories
101
Q

Two Core Category components

A
  1. researchers develop the main overarching category under which the other categories and subcategories belong
  2. Researchers also attempt to describe the process that leads to the relationships identified in the previous stage of the analysis
102
Q

Grounded Theory Approach Key Element

A

Constant Comparison

a. throughout analysis of the data
b. constant comparison of each new element of the data with all previous elements that have been coded in order to establish and refine categories
c. The analysis focuses on similarities and differences in the data that might be accounted for by a core idea
d. constantly comparing across coders and data

103
Q

Consensual Qualitative Research Approach (CQR)

A

Strives to have a team of researchers arrive at a consensus on the meaning of the data collected

104
Q

Three Steps to CQR Approach

A
  1. Code into domains
  2. Develop Core Ideas within Domains
  3. Cross-Analysis
105
Q

Code Into Domains

A
  1. Segment the data into groups according to the topics they cover
    a. done independently by each member of the research team
    b. team members meet to discuss and refine the domains until they reach unanimous agreement on them
    c. similar to grounded theory
    d. each step is done individually but then the group comes to consensus together as a team
106
Q

Develop Core Ideas within Domains…

A
  1. write short summaries that reduce the original ideas of participants to fewer words
    a. done independently by each member of the research team
    b. team members meet to come to consensus
107
Q

Cross-Analysis

A
  1. core ideas are grouped into categories based on similarities
  2. results in higher level of generalization
  3. looks for a central theme
108
Q

CQR External Stability Check

A
  1. examine data in addition to the interview transcripts (eye witness accounts, physical evidence)
  2. usually done by an outside auditor for quality control
109
Q

CQR Internal Stability Check

A
  1. Determine extent to which each category was:
    a. general : all participants
    b. Typical: half or more of the participants
    c. Variant: less than half, but more than two of the participants
  2. Distinctive feature of CQR
    a. the number of participants to which each domain applies should be provided in research reports
110
Q

Purpose of CQR Auditor

A
  1. outside expert
  2. reviews the work of the research team after each major step of the study
  3. Provide in a research report
    a. credentials of the auditor
    b. steps at which the auditor supplied feedback
    c. whether changes were made on the basis of the auditor’s feedback and what the changes were
111
Q

Differences between Quant and Qual is found in what section?

A

Results section

112
Q

Program Evaluation Compared to Experimental Research (3)

A
  1. Applied research vs. Basic research
  2. Preceded by a formal needs assessment vs. rarely preceded by a formal needs assessment
  3. Program subject to change during course of evaluation (formative and summative) vs. treatments rarely changed during course of experiment
113
Q

What type of research can be used soon to solve an immediate problem?

A

Applied Research

114
Q

What kind of research doesn’t necessarily solve a problem?

A

Experimental research

115
Q

What kind of research is conducted primarily to solve an existing problem?

A

Applied Research

116
Q

What kind of research is conducted primarily to obtain knowledge of underlying theories that explain behavior?

A

Basic Research

117
Q

What kind of research is used for formal needs assessment?

A

PE/Applied Research

118
Q

What kind of research rarely precedes formal needs assessment?

A

ER/Basic Research

119
Q

What kind of research determines practical needs of those who will be served by the program?

A

PE/Applied Research

120
Q

What is the major focus of Program Evaluation/Applied Research?

A

to estimate extent to which program has met needs revealed in needs assessment

121
Q

Two components of Program Evaluation

A
  1. Formative

2. Summative

122
Q

Formative Evaluation

A
  1. information collected during the course of the program that assists in the process of modifying the program while it is being implemented
  2. forms the program as we go along
  3. what parts of the process work?
123
Q

Two types of information collected in Formative Evaluation

A
  1. about the process of implementing the program

2. About progress toward ultimate goals (summative evaluation)

124
Q

Summative Evaluation

A

does the program ultimately reach goals?

125
Q

Five components of the Program Evaluation Research Report

A
  1. overview of the needs assessment that led to the development of the program
  2. Results of the formative evaluation
  3. Data on the summative evaluation
  4. Recommendations regarding extending the program in the future
  5. Recommendation for improving the program’s implementation

Research Methods in Counseling (8 decks)

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