Methods (general) Flashcards

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1
Q

Outline the process of conducting a sign test

A

1) Remove = scores
2) Add up positive scores and negative scores
3) Whichever is smaller is the calculated value
4) Using the table, find the critical value
5) Check if calculated value ≤ critical value
6) If so, the data is significant

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2
Q

When would you use a directional hypothesis?

A

When the findings from previous research on a similar topic suggest a particular outcome

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3
Q

When would you use a non-directional hypothesis?

A

When there is no previous research on the topic, or the findings of previous research on a similar topic have been contradictory

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4
Q

What are the strengths of correlational research?

A

Doing correlational research is cheap and easy. It can be useful when an carrying out an experiment would be unethical. It can be done before an experimental study to establish patterns.

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5
Q

Evaluate independent groups design

A

Strengths: not affected by order effects, less susceptible to demand characteristics
Weaknesses: affected by participant variables, requires twice as many participants

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6
Q

Evaluate repeated measures design

A

Strengths: not affected by participant variables, requires fewer participants
Weaknesses: affected by order effects, susceptible to demand characteristics

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7
Q

Evaluate matched pairs design

A

Strengths: not affected by order effects, less susceptible to demand characteristics, controls for participant variables
Weaknesses: time-consuming and expensive

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8
Q

What are the limitations of correlational research?

A

You cannot draw causal conclusions. Sometimes you do not know which co-variable caused the change in the other, and sometimes there is even a hidden variable affecting both variables (the third variable problem).

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9
Q

Evaluate laboratory experiments

A

Strengths: high control of EVs, good internal validity, good replicability
Weaknesses: artificial tasks, poor external validity, affected by demand characteristics

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10
Q

Evaluate field experiments

A

Strengths: high mundane realism, good external validity
Weaknesses: low control of EVs, poor replicability, ethical issues with lack of consent

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11
Q

Evaluate natural experiments

A

Strengths: high external validity, opportunities for research which may otherwise have ethical or practical limitations
Weaknesses: no random allocation, poor replicability, rarely occuring events

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12
Q

Evaluate quasi experiments

A

Strengths: high control of EVs, good internal validity
Weaknesses: no random allocation, affected by confounding varibales

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13
Q

What are the criteria for the sign test?

A

Related data (repeated measures design), it is a test of difference, nominal data (categories)

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14
Q

Evaluate random sampling

A

Strength: free from researcher bias
Weaknesses: time-consuming, may still result in an unrepresentative sample

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15
Q

Evaluate systematic sampling

A

Strengths: free from researcher bias, fairly representative
Weakness: time-consuming

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16
Q

Evaluate stratified sampling

A

Strengths: free from researcher bias, representative
Weakness: sub-groups cannot perfectly categorise participants

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17
Q

Evaluate opportunity sampling

A

Strengths: convenient, time and cost-effective
Weaknesses: researcher bias, unrepresentative

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18
Q

Evaluate volunteer sampling

A

Strengths: time and cost-effective
Weakness: volunteer bias (attracts a certain ‘profile’ of participants - curious, keen, helpful)

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19
Q

What do we need to know to use the critical values table for a sign test?

A

Whether the hypothesis is 1 or 2 tailed, the number of pieces of data, and the % of error allowed (usually 5%)

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20
Q

How do we deal with informed consent?

A

Participants should be issued with a consent letter detailing all relevant information. If the participant is younger than 16, their parents’ consent should be gained too.

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21
Q

How do we deal with deception and protection from harm?

A

At the end of the study participants should be fully debriefed (made aware of any deception, given the right to withdraw their data, given reassurance about their performance, and offered counselling)

22
Q

How do we deal with confidentiality?

A

Participants’ details should either be protected or they should remain anonymous, during briefing and debriefing they should be reminded that their data will be protected

23
Q

Evaluate naturalistic vs controlled observations

A

Naturalistic have high external validity, while controlled have good control of EVs and replicability

24
Q

Evaluate covert vs overt observations

A

Covert are not affected by participant reactivity increasing validity, while overt are more ethically sound

25
Q

Evaluate participant vs non-participant observations

A

Participant have good validity as the researcher gains important insight, while non-participant maintain objectivity

26
Q

How do we maximise and then measure inter-observer reliability?

A

The researchers would test their consistency in a pilot study, and then discuss any differences in interpretation. To measure inter-observer reliability the two sets of observations should be correlated (good = a correlation of 1).

27
Q

Evaluate structured observations

A

Strengths: recording data is easy and systematic, quantitative data is easy to analyse
Weaknesses: lacks rich observational detail, depends on quality of behavioural categories

28
Q

Evaluate unstructured observations

A

Strength: rich observational detail
Weaknesses: qualitative data is difficult to analyse, observer bias

29
Q

Evaluate event vs time sampling

A

Event sampling is useful when the target behaviour occurs infrequently, and records all instances of the target behaviour, while time sampling is useful in more complex observations by reducing the number of observations that have to be made.

30
Q

What are some strengths of questionnaires?

A

They are cost-effective, can gather large amounts of data, can be completed without the presence of an expert, and produce easy to analyse data that lends itself to statistical analysis

31
Q

What are some limitations of questionnaires?

A

They are reliant on truth and memory, and are affected by social desirability bias and response bias

32
Q

Evaluate structured interviews

A

They are easy to replicate, but give no room for elaboration or deviation so may miss important information

33
Q

Evaluate unstructured interviews

A

They are flexible which means that rich, precise detail can be gathered, but the data produced is difficult to analyse

34
Q

What five things should be avoided when writing questions for questionnaires and interviews?

A

Overuse of jargon, emotive language, leading questions, two-part questions, and double negatives

35
Q

Outline the design of an interview

A

The interviewer creates a standardised interview schedule, the interview takes place in a quiet room and begins with some neutral questions, the interviewer makes notes or records the answers, and the interviewee is reminded that their answers will remain confidential.

36
Q

Explain the difference between correlations and experiments

A

In an experiment the IV is manipulated to measure the DV, but in a correlation there is no such manipulation

37
Q

What are some strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data?

A

Strengths: rich detail, insightful, developed thoughts/feelings/opinions, good external validity
Weaknesses: difficult to analyse, subjective interpretation affected by bias

38
Q

What are some strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data?

A

Strengths: easy to analyse, lends itself to statistical analysis, objective and less affected by bias
Weaknesses: narrow in scope, poor external validity

39
Q

What is one strength and one weakness of primary data?

A

Strength: specifically targets subject of investigation
Weakness: requires time and effort on the part of the researcher

40
Q

What are some strengths and weaknesses of secondary data?

A

Strength: inexpensive, easily accessible, little effort required
Weaknesses: variable quality and accuracy, may not precisely fit the subject of investigation

41
Q

Evaluate the use of the mean as a measure of central tendency

A

Strengths: sensitive, includes all data, representative
Weakness: easily distorted by extreme data

42
Q

Evaluate the use of the median as a measure of central tendency

A

Strengths: easy to identify, not affected by extreme data
Weaknesses: does not include all data

43
Q

Evaluate the use of the mode as a measure of central tendency

A

Strengths: easy to identify, appropriate for nominal data
Weaknesses: crude measure, does not include all data

44
Q

Evaluate the use of the range as a measure of dispersion

A

Strength: easy to calculate
Weaknesses: easily distorted by extreme data, does not consider all data, unrepresentative

45
Q

Evaluate the use of the standard deviation as a measure of dispersion

A

Strengths: precise, includes all data
Weakness: easily distorted by extreme data

46
Q

In what circumstances may we use a more stringent significance level than 5%?

A

When research may involve human cost, when there is no possibility of replication, or when the findings have significant social implications.

47
Q

What are the three main aims of peer reviews?

A

To allocate research funding, to validate the quality and relevance of research, and to suggest amendments or improvements to research.

48
Q

Explain how anonymity is an issue in peer reviews

A

Usually the ‘peer’ doing the reviewing remains anonymous to increase honesty, but a minority of peers have used this anonymity to criticise rival researchers in competition for funding.

49
Q

Explain how publication bias is an issue for peer reviews

A

Journal editors are more interested in ‘headline grabbing’ and positive results, so research that doesn’t meet this criteria may be devalued during peer review.

50
Q

Explain how peer reviews can bury ground breaking research

A

‘Peers’ are likely to criticise research which contradicts mainstream theories or their own views, slowing down the publication of new and innovative research