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AS AQA Psychology > Methods (definitions) > Flashcards

Methods (definitions) Flashcards

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1
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Cues from the researcher or research situation that might give away the purpose of the test to the participant, potentially changing their behaviour.

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2
Q

Single blind

A

The participant doesn’t know anything about the experiment they are involved in

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3
Q

Double blind

A

Neither the participant nor the experimenter know anything about the experiment they are involved in

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4
Q

Internal validity

A

What caused the change in the DV? Was it the IV (good internal validity) or another factor (poor internal validity)?

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5
Q

External validity

A

Can the results/findings from the study be applied outside of the experiment?

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6
Q

Ecological validity

A

Sub-section of external validity - can the results of the study be applied to different settings?

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7
Q

Population validity

A

Sub-section of external validity - can the results of the study be applied to different people?

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8
Q

Historical validity

A

Sub-section of external validity - can the results of the study be applied to different time periods?

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9
Q

Mundane realism

A

Sub-section of ecological validity - is the study representative of real life situations?

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10
Q

Generalisability

A

Sub-section of ecological validity - can the results of the study be applied to real life?

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11
Q

Hypothesis

A

A testable prediction based on a theory stated at the beginning of a study

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12
Q

Directional hypothesis (1-tailed)

A

A hypothesis that predicts the outcome of the study by stating the direction of difference

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13
Q

Non-directional hypothesis (2-tailed)

A

A hypothesis that does not predict the outcome of the study by not stating the direction of difference

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14
Q

IV

A

Independent Variable - the thing you change

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15
Q

DV

A

Dependent Variable - the thing you measure

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16
Q

EV

A

Extraneous Variable - an unwanted factor that changes the DV if not controlled for

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17
Q

Operationalising

A

Clearly stating how you will measure and manipulate the IV and DV

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18
Q

Randomisation

A

Randomly assigning aspects of the study to control for the effect of bias

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19
Q

Standardisation

A

Using exactly the same procedure and instructions for all participants in a study

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20
Q

Investigator effects

A

Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) that may affect the DV

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21
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

An observation carried out in a natural environment

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22
Q

Controlled observation

A

An observation carried out in a controlled environment created for the study

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23
Q

Covert observation

A

The participant does not know they are the focus of the observation

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24
Q

Overt observation

A

The participant knows they are the focus of the observation

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25
Q

Participant observation

A

The experimenter joins the group they are investigating

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26
Q

Non-participant observation

A

The experimenter remains separate from the group they are investigating

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27
Q

Lab experiment

A

An experiment conducted in a controlled environment, where the IV is purposefully manipulated

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28
Q

Field experiment

A

An experiment conducted in a natural environment, where the IV is purposefully manipulated

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29
Q

Natural experiment

A

An experiment conducted in a natural environment, where the IV changes naturally

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30
Q

Quasi experiment

A

An experiment conducted in a natural environment, where the IV is pre-existing

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31
Q

Ethical issues

A

Occur when there is a conflict between participants’ rights and the investigator’s need to gain valuable information

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32
Q

BPS code of ethics

A

A set of ethical guidelines created by the British Psychological Society and implimented by ethics committees that an investigator has a duty to abide by in order to minimise ethical issues

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33
Q

Target population

A

A large group of people the researcher is interested in investigating (e.g. teenage girls) from which the sample is drawm

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34
Q

Random sampling

A

Each participant is allocated a number and numbers are selected at random using a random number generator. Each participant has an equal chance of being selected.

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35
Q

Systematic sampling

A

The names of the participants are written in a systematic order (e.g. alphabetically) and after a certain interval a name is chosen (e.g. every 5th person)

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36
Q

Stratified sampling

A

A large group of people is broken up into smaller sub-groups, and the number of people chosen from each sub-group to take part in the study is proportionate to the size of the large group.

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37
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

Participants are selected purely based on if they are available and present

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38
Q

Volunteer sampling

A

Participants volunteer themselves to take part in the study, potentially via a newspaper advertisement

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39
Q

Retrospective consent

A

Participants are asked for their consent after the study has taken place (during debriefing)`

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40
Q

Presumptive consent

A

Rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a group of similar people are asked if they think the study is acceptable, and if they say that it is, the participant’s consent is presumed

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41
Q

Prior general consent

A

Participants give their consent to be involved in multiple different studies, one of which involves deception - so they are essentially consenting to being deceived.

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42
Q

Correlation

A

The relationship between two co-variables

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43
Q

Hidden variable

A

A variable that affects two co-variables, making it appear as if they affect eachother

44
Q

Likert scale

A

Respondent indicates their view with a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree

45
Q

Rating scale

A

Respondent picks a number which represents the strength of their view

46
Q

Fixed choice

A

Respondent chooses the view(s) that apply to their from a set list

47
Q

Structured interview

A

An interview made up of a pre-determined set of questions

48
Q

Semi-structured interview

A

An interview with a pre-determined set of questions that can be expanded with follow up questions

49
Q

Unstructured interview

A

An interview with no pre-determined set of questions

50
Q

Triangulation

A

Using two research methods that compliment each other and don’t share the same weaknesses

51
Q

Case study

A

A research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event

52
Q

Dual task study

A

A study where the participant does two tasks at the same time

53
Q

Independent groups

A

Each test group experiences a different condition of the experiment. If the IV has two layers, each participant will only experience one of the layers.

54
Q

Repeated measures

A

All test groups experience all of the different conditions of the experiment. If the IV has two layers, each participant will experience both layers.

55
Q

Matched pairs

A

Matching people with similar qualities relating to the experiment e.g. for a memory test, those with similar IQs. Each member of the pair experiences a different condition of the test.

56
Q

Qualitative data

A

Data that comes from people’s words, in particular from open questions (interviews / newspapers / observations / recordings). It is analysed by identifying themes, which can take a long time.

57
Q

Quantitative data

A

Data that comes from numbers, or closed questions. It is analysed through statistics, which are quick and easy to produce.

58
Q

Open question

A

Allows respondent to answer freely and in as much detail as they want. Produces qualitative data.

59
Q

Closed question

A

Gives the respondent a limited number of answers to choose from. Produces quantitative data.

60
Q

Acquiescence bias

A

When people completing a questionnaire continuously tick the same box (e.g. ‘agree’), regardless of the content of the statement. This reduces the validity of the result of the questionnaire.

61
Q

Meta analysis

A

Analysis of the combined results from a number of studies on the same topic

62
Q

Primary data

A

Data collected specifically for the purpose of the study by the researcher. It is gathered through experiments, interviews, questionnaires and interviews.

63
Q

Secondary data

A

Data which has already been collected by someone other than the researcher. It is gathered through books, journal articles, and websites.

64
Q

Event sampling

A

Observing a particular event for particular features (e.g. recording how many people come into a cafe in a day)

65
Q

Time sampling

A

After every interval of time, observing how many particular features there are (e.g. recording the number of people in a cafe at each hour)

66
Q

Null hypothesis

A

A hypothesis which states that there will be no correlation/difference

67
Q

Significant data

A

Data which is unlikely to be a result of chance (typically only 5% likely)

68
Q

Counterbalancing (ABBA)

A

An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design. Half of the participants experience the conditions in one order (A then B) and the other half in the other order (B then A).

69
Q

Experimental method

A

Studying something by manipulating an IV and measuring a DV

70
Q

Aim

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate

71
Q

Levels of the IV

A

The control condition and the experimental condition(s)

72
Q

Confounding variable

A

A variable which changes systematically with the IV and has an unwanted effect on the DV so that we cannot know the true source of the change in the DV

73
Q

Participant reactivity

A

The way a participant reacts to an experimental situation in trying to make sense of it (a significant EV)

74
Q

Please-U-effect

A

A result of demand characteristics where the participant acts in a way they think is expected and over-performs to please the experimenter

75
Q

Screw-U-effect

A

A result of demand characteristics where the participant deliberately under-performs to sabotage the results of the study

76
Q

Experimental design

A

The different ways the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the levels of the IV

77
Q

Random allocation

A

Allocating participants to conditions using chance in an independent groups design to control for participant variables

78
Q

Order effects

A

A consequence of the significance of the order of the conditions in a repeated measures design. Order can affect fatigue, boredom, and performance (e.g. practice).

79
Q

Bias (sampling)

A

When certain groups are over or under represented in a sample, reducing generalisability

80
Q

Generalisation (sampling)

A

The extent to which findings from a sample can be broadly applied to the population

81
Q

Sampling frame

A

A list of the population organised systematically (e.g. alphabetically), used in systematic sampling

82
Q

Deception

A

Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants

83
Q

Informed consent

A

Making the participants aware of the aims of the research, procedure, their rights (including the right to withdraw), and how their data will be used

84
Q

Protection from harm

A

The participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from psychological (including embarrassment, stress and pressure) and physical harm

85
Q

Privacy and confedentiality

A

The right to control and protect personal information and data

86
Q

Pilot study

A

A small-scale version of the study (experimental studies, observations, questionnaires, interviews) conducted before the real study to check procedures, materials etc so that modifications can be made if necessary

87
Q

Behavioural categories

A

When a target behaviour is broken down into observable, measurable, self-evident, exclusive, unambiguous components

88
Q

Unstructured observation

A

The researcher makes a note of everything significant they see

89
Q

Structured observation

A

The researcher uses a pre-determined behavioural checklist to quantify their observation

90
Q

Inter-observer reliability

A

Consistency between the observations made by two researchers of a single event

91
Q

Self-report

A

Any method in which a participant is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, or experiences, including interviews and questionnaires

92
Q

Social desirability bias

A

Where participants present themselves in an overly positive light in self-reports

93
Q

Response bias

A

Where participants follow a pattern in the way they respond to questions regardless of the content of the question

94
Q

Positive correlation

A

As one variable increases, so does the other

95
Q

Negative correlation

A

As one variable increases, the other decreases

96
Q

Zero correlation

A

There is no relationship between the variables

97
Q

Standard deviation

A

A measure of dispersion expressing how much, on average, the data deviates from the mean

98
Q

Normal distribution

A

A symmetrical, bell-shaped spread of frequency data. The mean, median, and mode are all located at the peak.

99
Q

Skewed distribution

A

An asymmetrical, bell-shaped spread of frequency data where the data clusters at one end

100
Q

Positive skew

A

A distribution where the data clusters to the left. The mode is at the peak, and the median and mean follow to the right.

101
Q

Negative skew

A

A distribution where the data clusters to the right. The mode is at the peak, and the median and mean follow to the left.

102
Q

Statistical testing

A

A way of determining whether a hypothesis should be accepted by showing whether the findings are significant or a result of chance

103
Q

Peer review

A

The assessment of psychological research by specialists in the field to ensure the quality of research intended for publication

104
Q

Publication bias

A

When a researcher involved in a meta-analysis/publisher chooses to ignore studies with negative or non-significant results

105
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Visual representations of data e.g. graphs, tables, charts, mean, standard deviation

106
Q

Inferential statistics

A

Analysis of data using statistical tests

AS AQA Psychology (15 decks)

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