Methods (definitions) Flashcards
Demand characteristics
Cues from the researcher or research situation that might give away the purpose of the test to the participant, potentially changing their behaviour.
Single blind
The participant doesn’t know anything about the experiment they are involved in
Double blind
Neither the participant nor the experimenter know anything about the experiment they are involved in
Internal validity
What caused the change in the DV? Was it the IV (good internal validity) or another factor (poor internal validity)?
External validity
Can the results/findings from the study be applied outside of the experiment?
Ecological validity
Sub-section of external validity - can the results of the study be applied to different settings?
Population validity
Sub-section of external validity - can the results of the study be applied to different people?
Historical validity
Sub-section of external validity - can the results of the study be applied to different time periods?
Mundane realism
Sub-section of ecological validity - is the study representative of real life situations?
Generalisability
Sub-section of ecological validity - can the results of the study be applied to real life?
Hypothesis
A testable prediction based on a theory stated at the beginning of a study
Directional hypothesis (1-tailed)
A hypothesis that predicts the outcome of the study by stating the direction of difference
Non-directional hypothesis (2-tailed)
A hypothesis that does not predict the outcome of the study by not stating the direction of difference
IV
Independent Variable - the thing you change
DV
Dependent Variable - the thing you measure
EV
Extraneous Variable - an unwanted factor that changes the DV if not controlled for
Operationalising
Clearly stating how you will measure and manipulate the IV and DV
Randomisation
Randomly assigning aspects of the study to control for the effect of bias
Standardisation
Using exactly the same procedure and instructions for all participants in a study
Investigator effects
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) that may affect the DV
Naturalistic observation
An observation carried out in a natural environment
Controlled observation
An observation carried out in a controlled environment created for the study
Covert observation
The participant does not know they are the focus of the observation
Overt observation
The participant knows they are the focus of the observation
Participant observation
The experimenter joins the group they are investigating
Non-participant observation
The experimenter remains separate from the group they are investigating
Lab experiment
An experiment conducted in a controlled environment, where the IV is purposefully manipulated
Field experiment
An experiment conducted in a natural environment, where the IV is purposefully manipulated
Natural experiment
An experiment conducted in a natural environment, where the IV changes naturally
Quasi experiment
An experiment conducted in a natural environment, where the IV is pre-existing
Ethical issues
Occur when there is a conflict between participants’ rights and the investigator’s need to gain valuable information
BPS code of ethics
A set of ethical guidelines created by the British Psychological Society and implimented by ethics committees that an investigator has a duty to abide by in order to minimise ethical issues
Target population
A large group of people the researcher is interested in investigating (e.g. teenage girls) from which the sample is drawm
Random sampling
Each participant is allocated a number and numbers are selected at random using a random number generator. Each participant has an equal chance of being selected.
Systematic sampling
The names of the participants are written in a systematic order (e.g. alphabetically) and after a certain interval a name is chosen (e.g. every 5th person)
Stratified sampling
A large group of people is broken up into smaller sub-groups, and the number of people chosen from each sub-group to take part in the study is proportionate to the size of the large group.
Opportunity sampling
Participants are selected purely based on if they are available and present
Volunteer sampling
Participants volunteer themselves to take part in the study, potentially via a newspaper advertisement
Retrospective consent
Participants are asked for their consent after the study has taken place (during debriefing)`
Presumptive consent
Rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a group of similar people are asked if they think the study is acceptable, and if they say that it is, the participant’s consent is presumed
Prior general consent
Participants give their consent to be involved in multiple different studies, one of which involves deception - so they are essentially consenting to being deceived.
Correlation
The relationship between two co-variables
Hidden variable
A variable that affects two co-variables, making it appear as if they affect eachother
Likert scale
Respondent indicates their view with a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree
Rating scale
Respondent picks a number which represents the strength of their view
Fixed choice
Respondent chooses the view(s) that apply to their from a set list
Structured interview
An interview made up of a pre-determined set of questions
Semi-structured interview
An interview with a pre-determined set of questions that can be expanded with follow up questions
Unstructured interview
An interview with no pre-determined set of questions
Triangulation
Using two research methods that compliment each other and don’t share the same weaknesses
Case study
A research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event
Dual task study
A study where the participant does two tasks at the same time
Independent groups
Each test group experiences a different condition of the experiment. If the IV has two layers, each participant will only experience one of the layers.
Repeated measures
All test groups experience all of the different conditions of the experiment. If the IV has two layers, each participant will experience both layers.
Matched pairs
Matching people with similar qualities relating to the experiment e.g. for a memory test, those with similar IQs. Each member of the pair experiences a different condition of the test.
Qualitative data
Data that comes from people’s words, in particular from open questions (interviews / newspapers / observations / recordings). It is analysed by identifying themes, which can take a long time.
Quantitative data
Data that comes from numbers, or closed questions. It is analysed through statistics, which are quick and easy to produce.
Open question
Allows respondent to answer freely and in as much detail as they want. Produces qualitative data.
Closed question
Gives the respondent a limited number of answers to choose from. Produces quantitative data.
Acquiescence bias
When people completing a questionnaire continuously tick the same box (e.g. ‘agree’), regardless of the content of the statement. This reduces the validity of the result of the questionnaire.
Meta analysis
Analysis of the combined results from a number of studies on the same topic
Primary data
Data collected specifically for the purpose of the study by the researcher. It is gathered through experiments, interviews, questionnaires and interviews.
Secondary data
Data which has already been collected by someone other than the researcher. It is gathered through books, journal articles, and websites.
Event sampling
Observing a particular event for particular features (e.g. recording how many people come into a cafe in a day)
Time sampling
After every interval of time, observing how many particular features there are (e.g. recording the number of people in a cafe at each hour)
Null hypothesis
A hypothesis which states that there will be no correlation/difference
Significant data
Data which is unlikely to be a result of chance (typically only 5% likely)
Counterbalancing (ABBA)
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design. Half of the participants experience the conditions in one order (A then B) and the other half in the other order (B then A).
Experimental method
Studying something by manipulating an IV and measuring a DV
Aim
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate
Levels of the IV
The control condition and the experimental condition(s)
Confounding variable
A variable which changes systematically with the IV and has an unwanted effect on the DV so that we cannot know the true source of the change in the DV
Participant reactivity
The way a participant reacts to an experimental situation in trying to make sense of it (a significant EV)
Please-U-effect
A result of demand characteristics where the participant acts in a way they think is expected and over-performs to please the experimenter
Screw-U-effect
A result of demand characteristics where the participant deliberately under-performs to sabotage the results of the study
Experimental design
The different ways the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the levels of the IV
Random allocation
Allocating participants to conditions using chance in an independent groups design to control for participant variables
Order effects
A consequence of the significance of the order of the conditions in a repeated measures design. Order can affect fatigue, boredom, and performance (e.g. practice).
Bias (sampling)
When certain groups are over or under represented in a sample, reducing generalisability
Generalisation (sampling)
The extent to which findings from a sample can be broadly applied to the population
Sampling frame
A list of the population organised systematically (e.g. alphabetically), used in systematic sampling
Deception
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants
Informed consent
Making the participants aware of the aims of the research, procedure, their rights (including the right to withdraw), and how their data will be used
Protection from harm
The participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from psychological (including embarrassment, stress and pressure) and physical harm
Privacy and confedentiality
The right to control and protect personal information and data
Pilot study
A small-scale version of the study (experimental studies, observations, questionnaires, interviews) conducted before the real study to check procedures, materials etc so that modifications can be made if necessary
Behavioural categories
When a target behaviour is broken down into observable, measurable, self-evident, exclusive, unambiguous components
Unstructured observation
The researcher makes a note of everything significant they see
Structured observation
The researcher uses a pre-determined behavioural checklist to quantify their observation
Inter-observer reliability
Consistency between the observations made by two researchers of a single event
Self-report
Any method in which a participant is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, or experiences, including interviews and questionnaires
Social desirability bias
Where participants present themselves in an overly positive light in self-reports
Response bias
Where participants follow a pattern in the way they respond to questions regardless of the content of the question
Positive correlation
As one variable increases, so does the other
Negative correlation
As one variable increases, the other decreases
Zero correlation
There is no relationship between the variables
Standard deviation
A measure of dispersion expressing how much, on average, the data deviates from the mean
Normal distribution
A symmetrical, bell-shaped spread of frequency data. The mean, median, and mode are all located at the peak.
Skewed distribution
An asymmetrical, bell-shaped spread of frequency data where the data clusters at one end
Positive skew
A distribution where the data clusters to the left. The mode is at the peak, and the median and mean follow to the right.
Negative skew
A distribution where the data clusters to the right. The mode is at the peak, and the median and mean follow to the left.
Statistical testing
A way of determining whether a hypothesis should be accepted by showing whether the findings are significant or a result of chance
Peer review
The assessment of psychological research by specialists in the field to ensure the quality of research intended for publication
Publication bias
When a researcher involved in a meta-analysis/publisher chooses to ignore studies with negative or non-significant results
Descriptive statistics
Visual representations of data e.g. graphs, tables, charts, mean, standard deviation
Inferential statistics
Analysis of data using statistical tests
