memory names

Question 1

Peterson + Peterson

Answer 1

-research into duration
-Tested 24 students in 8 trials
-each trial gave student a consonant syllable (such as YGB) and a 3 digit number
-the participants were asked to count backwards from the number (to prevent rehearsal) and recall letters
-told to stop after either 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and seconds
-after 3 seconds recall was 80%
-after 18 seconds recall was 3%

Question 2

Jacobs

Answer 2

-research into capacity-
-Measured digit span using recall of varying amounts of numbers
-found that recall of numbers was 9.3
-recall of letters was 7.3

Question 3

Miller

Answer 3

-research into chunking
-found that things come in 7s and suggested that we remember thinks by grouping (or chunking)
- 7+/-2

Question 4

Baddely

Answer 4

-conducted research into coding
-Gave different lists of words to 4 groups of participants
1) semantically similar
2) semantically dissimilar
3) acoustically similar
4) acoustically dissimilar
-found that STM performed worse on acoustically similar words
-LTM did worse semantically similar
STM= coded acoustically
LTM= coded semantically

Question 5

Bahrick

Answer 5

-research into duration of LTM
-studied 392 Americans between 17-74
-used high school year books
-recall was tested through 1- photo recognition and 2- free recall
-ppts tested within 15 years of graduating - 90% accuracy in photo recognition
-which after 48 years fell to 70%
-free recall after 15 years was 60%
-and fell to 30% after 48 years

Question 6

Atkinson + Shiffrin

Answer 6

MSM

Question 7

HM

Answer 7

-underwent brain surgery to relieve his epilepsy
-hippocampus was removed from both sides of his brain which is now known to be central to memory function
- HM was unable to form new long term memories
-he struggled to remember what he did in a day but performed well on tests of immediate memory

Question 8

Tulving

Answer 8

Types of LTM

Question 9

Clive Wearing

Answer 9

-severely impaired episodic memory but still retained procedural memory such as reading and playing music on the piano

Question 10

Buckner and Peterson

Answer 10

-types of LTM
-looked at neuroimaging evidence regarding locations of semantic and episodic memory -
-they concluded that semantic memory is on the left of the prefrontal direct and episodic is on the right, however, other research links the prefrontal cortex with encoding of episodic memory and the right with episodic retrieval
-this challenges any biological evidence and there is poor agreement

Question 11

Baddely and Hitch

Answer 11

WMM

Question 12

KF

Answer 12

had poor STM for auditory information but could process visual information normally after a motorcycle incident
-he had poor memory when things were read to him (auditory) but recall improved when he read them himself (visual)

Question 13

Baddely (support for WMM)

Answer 13

-dual task performance-
-asked ppts to carry out visual and verbal tasks at the same time
-their performance quality on each task were similar when performed separately but drastically declined when performed at the same time (eg 2 visual tasks)
-Both visual tasks compete for the VSS but there is no competition when one task is verbal and one is visual

Question 14

McGeoch + McDonald

Answer 14

-studied retroactive interference by changing the account of similarity between 2 sets of material
-ppts had to learn a list of words until they could remember it with 100% accuracy
-6 groups then had to learn a different set of words
1-same meanings
2-opposite meanings
3-words unrelated
4- consonant syllable
5-3 digit number
6- no list (control)
Group 1 had the worst recall of the original list as interference is stronger when the memories are similar

Question 15

Baddely and Hitch Rugby

Answer 15

-asked rugby players ti recall names of teams they had played against in that rugby season
-players all played the same time interval but the number of intervening games varied due to injury
-players who played the most games (most interference) had the poorest recall

Question 16

Tulving + Psotka

Answer 16

-Interference as temporary and cab be overcome by cues
-gave ppts lists of words in groups- but not the name of the catagory the words were in
-recall averages at around 70% for the first list but worsened over time (proactive)
-at the end the ppts were told the name of the categories and recall rose again to 70%

Question 17

Coenen -

Question 18

Godden and BAddely

Answer 18

-context dependant forgetting
- studied deep sea divers who work underwater to see if training on land helped or hindered their work
-divers learnt a list on words either underwater or on land and were then asked to recall the words underwater on land - 4 conditions
1-learn on land- recall on land
2-learn on land - recall underwater
3-learn underwater - recall on land
4-learn underwater- recall underwater
Found that active recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions
-they concluded that the external cues available at learning were different to ones available to ones at recall - leading to retrieval failure

Question 19

Carter and Cassidy

Answer 19

-state dependant forgetting
-gave antihistamine drugs to their ppts- having a mild sedative effect making ppts slightly drowning and creating a different state
again, 4 different conditions
1) learn on drug - recall on drug
2) learn on drug - recall off drug
3) learn off drug- recall on drug
4) learn off drug - recall off drug
- found that in conditions that did not match, memory was significantly worse

Question 20

Godden and Baddely 2

Answer 20

-replicated their underwater study but used recognition instead of recall
-ppts had to say if they recognised a word read aloud to them from a list, instead of retrieving it themselves
-performance was the same in all 4 conditions
-this suggests that retrieval failure is a limited explanation as it only applies to recall and not recognition

Question 21

Loftus and Palmer

Answer 21

-45 students asked to watch a video of car accidents
-they were asked “about how fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?”
-the ppts were put into 5 groups and the gap was filled with a different verb each time
1) Hit
2) contacted
3) bumped
4) collided
5) smashed
-mean estimate speed
2) contacted - 31.8
5) smashed - 40.5

Question 22

Gabbert -

Answer 22

Post event discussion -
-studied ppts in pairs
-each person in pair was shown the same events but 2 different perspectives
-2 were given the opportunity to discuss
-ppts were then interviewed by researcher individually about event
-71% of ppts recalled events that had not been seen but picked up by discussion
-rate in control group was 0%

Question 23

Johnson + Scott -

Answer 23

-ppts believed that they were in a lab study
-whilst in the waiting room, in the low anxiety condition, ppts heard a conversation in the next room and saw a man walk past them carrying a pen w grease on his hand
-other ppts, in the high anxiety condition, heard a heated argument accompanied w sound of breaking glass- a man would then walk out carrying a knife with his hands covered in blood
-ppts then had to choose a man out of 50 pictures
low anxiety - 49% correctly identified man
high anxiety- 33% correctly identified

Question 24

Yuille and cutshall

Answer 24

-anxiety having a positive impact
-conducted a study of an actual shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver - where the shop owner shot a thief
-there were 21 witnesses at 13 took part in the study
-the ppts were interviewed 4-5 months after the incident and the interviews were compared to the original police interviews at the time of shooting
-accuracy was determined by number of details reported in each account
-each ppt was also asked how anxious they were
-found that there was little changes in accuracy after 5 months
-but ppts who reported the highest level of stress were most accurate (about 88% compared to 75% of less stressed ppts)
-suggesting that anxiety may enhance memory

Question 25

Craik and Watkins

Answer 25

-limitation of MSM is prolonged rehearsal is not needed
-according to msm- what matters when rehearsing is the amount of
Craig and Watkins found that type of rehearsal is more important than amount - elaborative rehearsal is needed for long term storage

Question 26

Belleville

Answer 26

+strength of types of LTM - real world application
-as people age, they experiences memory loss but research shows this is specific to episodic memory
-devised an intervention to improve episodic memories in order people
which showed successful results

Question 27

Sutherland

Answer 27

-limitation of EWT
-more accurate for som aspects of event than other
Sutherland showed ppts a video clip- when asked misleading questions, recall was more accurate for central details of the event than peripheral ones as the ppts attention was probably more focused on central ones
-suggests that original mems for central aspects can survive

Question 28

Christianson

Answer 28

interviewed 58 witnesses to actual bank robberies in Sweden
-some witnesses were directly involved (eg bank workers) and some were indirectly involved (eg bystanders)
-researchers assumed that those directly involved would experience the most anxiety
-it was found that recall was more than 75% accurate across all witnesses - direct victims even being more accurate

-however- interviewed 15 months after

Question 29

Kohnken

Answer 29

+support for effectiveness of cognitive interview
-meta analysis combines data from 55 studies comparing the cognitive interview and standard police interview
-CI gave an average 41% increase in accuracy compared to standard interview

-also found an increase in amount of inaccurate information recalled by ppts - particularly with ECI which produced more incorrect details than CI

Question 30

Mine and Bull

Answer 30

-limitation of CI as not all elements are equally effective or useful
-found that each of the 4 techniques used alone produced more info thann police interview
but - using a combination of report everything and reinstate the context produced better recall than any of the other elements or combinations

Question 31

Skagerberg and Wright

Answer 31

showed their participants film clips
-2 versions - a muggers hair was dark brown in one, but light brown in the other
-ppts discussed the clips in pairs, each having seen different versions
-they often did not report what they had seen in the clips or what they had heard from the co-witness, but a ‘blend’ of the two (common answer was medium brown)
-suggests memory is distorted through contamination - rather memory conformity

Question 32

Valentine and Mesout

Answer 32

supports research on weapon focus, finding negative effects on recall
-researchers used an objective measure (heart rate) to divide ppts into high and low anxiety groups
-anxiety clearly disrupted the ppts ability to recall details about the actor in Lundon Dungeon

Question 33

real world application of retrieval failure

Answer 33

Because it has real-world applications, for instance it can be used to improve recall. For example, Abernathy showed that students tested by the same instructor in the same room where they learned, did better in tests than those who were tested by a different instructor and in a different room. Furthermore, Smith showed in his basement/9th floor study that you can improve recall by thinking about the place you learned the information.
Both of these studies give valuable insight for people like students and eyewitnesses, who usually have to recall information in different places to where they learned the information. In an exam, students can momentarily close their eyes and imagine being back where they learned their work. This should improve recall. Eyewitnesses can be interviewed using context reinstatement (part of CIT), which has been shown to improve recall.