Memory

Question 1

Define: Memory

Answer 1

The process in which information is retained about the past.

Question 2

Define: Capacity

Answer 2

A measurement of how much can be held in a memory store.

Question 3

Define: duration

Answer 3

A measurement of how long a memory lasts (before it is no longer available).

Question 4

Define: coding

Answer 4

Information being changed into a usable form, ‘a code’ that can later be stored in memory.

Question 5

What are the 3 main ways of coding ?

Answer 5

1. Visual (picture)
2. Acoustic (sound)
3. Semantic (memory)

Question 6

Explain a study of coding (Baddeley 1966)

Answer 6

He tested the effect of acoustic and semantic similarities on short and long term recall.
He gave participants a list of words which were acoustically similar and dissimilar and words that were semantically similar and dissimilar.

He found that participants had difficulty remembering acoustically similar words in the STM and not in the LTM.
Whereas semantically similar words were easier to recall in the STM but muddled in the LTM.

Question 7

How is coding different in the short term memory compared to the long term memory?

Answer 7

In short term, it refers to what we hear (acoustic) but in long term it refers to what it means (semantic).

Question 8

What are the 3 types of memory?

Answer 8

1. Sensory memory
2. Short term memory (STM)
3. Long term memory (LTM)

Question 9

What is sensory memory?

Answer 9

A type of memory which temporarily stores information from our 5 senses, constantly receiving information around us.
• limited capacity and limited duration (1/2 - 4 seconds).
•Spontaneous decay - the trace fades.

Question 10

What is short term memory?

Answer 10

Memory of immediate events, which has limited capacity and a limited duration. Coding is usually acoustic (sound).

Question 11

What is the capacity of STM?

Answer 11

Miller (1956) suggests that people have a digit span of 7 plus/minus

Cowan (2001) tested miller’s work and found that we only actually have four chunks of info.

Question 12

What is the duration of STM?

Answer 12

Info can only stay in the STM for a short amount of time before it is forgotten. Usually about less than 18 seconds.

Question 13

Explain a study of STM duration (Peterson and Peterson 1959)

Answer 13

PROCEDURE: 24 students were tested over 8 trials, where on each trial a participant was given a consonant nonsense syllable and a 3 digit number.
They were asked to recall the consonant syllable after a retention interval of 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 seconds. During the retention interval they had to count backwards from their 3 digit number.
RESULTS: Participants on average were 90% correct over 3 seconds, 20% correct aft to 9 and only 2% after 18 seconds.
CONC: This suggests that STM has a short duration (less than 18 seconds) as long as verbal rehearsal is prevented.

Question 14

Evaluate the study of the duration of STM (Peterson and Peterson)

Answer 14

• Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not truly reflect most every day memory activities, lacks ecological validity and mundane realism.
• STM results may be due to displacement (confounding variable) as participants were counting numbers which may overwrite the syllables to be remembered. Also LTM was tested by waiting for 20 mins. Lacks internal validity.
• STM may not be exclusively acoustic.
• LTM may not be exclusively semantic.

Question 15

Define: Chunking

Answer 15

Technique to increase the capacity of STM by grouping sets of digits.

Question 16

Explain a study of LTM duration (Bahrick et al)

Answer 16

• 400 Participants (aged 17-74) were asked to recognise names of ex school friends by looking at photographs from their yearbook.
• They found that within 15 years of graduation, 90% were accurate with 60% of these being free recall. Within 48 years, 70% were accurate with 30% recall.
• As the duration of the LTM increased, the capacity decreased.

Question 17

What is long term memory?

Answer 17

Memory of past events which has unlimited capacity and is theoretically permanent.
Coding is usually semantic.
Divided into two types: declarative and non-declarative.

Question 18

What is episodic memory?

Answer 18

A type of long term memory which stores information about events that you’ve personally experienced. It can contain information about specific detail (e.g time/place), emotions you felt and the context (what happened before or after).
Everyone’s episodic memory is different.
Eg. Recollection of first day at school.

*Pre-frontal cortex

Question 19

What is semantic memory?

Answer 19

A type of long term memory which stores facts and knowledge that we have learnt and can consciously recall.
Semantic memory generally begins as episodic memory because we acquire knowledge based on personal experiences.
Semantic memory is not specific to the individual therefore everyone’s semantic memory is similar.
Eg. Capital of England is London.

*frontal and temporal lobes

Question 20

What is procedural memory?

Answer 20

A type of long term memory which stores the knowledge of how to do things (motor skills).
This information can’t be consciously recalled and is disrupted if we pay too much attention to it.
Memories are typically acquired through repetition and practice.
Eg. How to swim.

*primary motor cortex, cerebellum and prefrontal cortex

Question 21

What are the four long term memory stores that Schachter et Al (2000) suggested?

Answer 21

• Semantic memory
• Episodic memory
• Procedural memory
• Perceptual - representation system (PRS): recognition of specific stimuli (words) which have been seen before.

Question 22

What is the evidence of the different types of long-term memory?

Answer 22

• Evidence from brain scans shows that different areas of the brain are active when the different kinds of LTM’s are active.
Episodic = hippocampus/frontal lobe
Semantic = temporal lobe
Procedural = cerebellum/motor cortex/basal ganglia and limbic system.
• Patient HM whose LTM was affected after damage had the ability to form new procedural memories but not new semantic or episodic - supports the separation between declarative and non-declarative memory.
• However use of case studies has its disadvantages, especially with brain damaged patients.

Question 23

Describe the multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

Answer 23

1. Sensory register - first store based on the senses and corresponding areas of the brain. Large capacity, short duration.
2. Attention- Data from sensory stores is transferred to STM if attention is focused.
3. STM - used for immediate task, info can be displaced. limited duration, limited capacity.
4. Maintenance rehearsal- repetition keeps information in STM but eventually will create a LTM.
5. LTM - unlimited duration and Capacity.
6. Retrieval - The process of getting info from LTM involves the information passing back through STM, it is then available for use (after coding).

Question 24

Define: multi store memory model

Answer 24

The multi store model created by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) is a description/theoretical model of how memory works in terms of three stores. And how memory is transferred to separate stores in a linear way.

Question 25

What are the 3 stores of the multi store memory?

Answer 25

Sensory memory, short-term memory and long term memory.

Question 26

What is the evidence of three separate memory stores?

Answer 26

• Brain scanning techniques show locations in the brain responsible for different memories.
• Case studies

Question 27

Which area of the brain is associated with short term memory?

Answer 27

Prefrontal cortex (Beardsley 1977).

Question 28

Which area of the brain is associated with long-term memory?

Answer 28

Hippocampus (Squire et al 1992).

Question 29

Outline the HM case study

Answer 29

Scoville and Milner:
Patient HM had his hippocampus removed to help reduce his epilepsy.
This resulted in his long-term memory reduced/gone however his personality and intellect remained intact.
He could remember events before operation but not after, episodic and semantic memory were damaged. However procedural memory was not affected.

Question 30

According to Atkinson and Shiffrin what happens between the stores?

Answer 30

• Memory is free-flowing.
• Presumption that all memories in each store are the same in terms of capacity, duration and encoding (e.g. Capacity of all STM is 7+/-2.
• Presumption that if one type of memory is affected the totality of that memory is affected (e.g. Amnesic patient all of STM should be damaged).

Question 31

Outline the KF case study

Answer 31

Shallice and Warrington:
KF suffered from amnesia as a result of a motorcycle incident, had no problem with long-term memory but his STM was affected.

Question 32

How did Shallice and Warrington (patient KF) contradict the MSM theory?

Answer 32

Suggested that STM is not a single memory store. MSM predicts that if STM is damaged it affects all types of memory within the store this means there should not be any difference in recall between auditory or visual information. In the case of KF, results showed there was a significant drop in auditory information and an intact visual recall.

Question 33

Evaluate the multi store model of memory

Answer 33

• There is evidence of 3 separate memory stores: SM, STM and LTM from brain scans (different areas associated with each).
• Provides an account of memory in terms of both structure and process so predictions can be tested. Has encouraged psychologist to test models of memory that is developing a knowledge of how memory works.
• Oversimplifies the process of memory (e.g. doesn’t talk about forgetting) and suggest that each memory is a single unitary store. Yet the case study on KF suggests that STM is not a single store. He had normal ability on his VSS only.
• Long-term memory involves more than maintenance rehearsal (Craik and Lockheart 1972, processing).
• Schater et al (2000) suggests that there are 4 memory stores in LTM.

Question 34

Outline the Craik and Lockhart (1972) study

Answer 34

Memory depends on how much attention is paid to the information at the time of encoding, this is known as levels of processing.
•Deep processing: meaningful information processing leads to more permanent retention (semantic).
•Shallow processing: Minimal amount of processing.

*after this elaborate rehearsal replaced maintenance rehearsal on the MSM.

Question 35

What is the working memory model?

Answer 35

An explanation of the memory used in the STM when working on a task, each store is qualitatively different.

Question 36

What are the four main components of the working memory?

Answer 36

• Central executive
• Phonological loop (phonological store + articulatory process)
• Visuo-spatial sketch pad (visual cache + inner scribe)
• Episodic buffer

Question 37

What are the key features of the central executive?

Answer 37

• (Supervisor) decides which issues requires attention and which can be ignored.
• Limited capacity.
• Uses information from LTM to perform complex cognitive task.
• Retrieves and coordinates info from the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketch pad.

Question 38

What are the key features of the phonological loop?

Answer 38

•Operates with acoustic information (sounds) and has two components:
~Phonological store - speech perception, learning words/to read (inner ear)
•Duration is 1.5-2secs.
•The store is refreshed by rehearsal.
~ Articulatory process - speech production.
•Rehearsal is subvocally - speech which is not spoken out aloud (inner voice).
•Used to rehearse and store verbal information from the phonological store.
•Converts written material into a spoken code and transfers it to the phonological store.

Question 39

What are the key features of the episodic buffer?

Answer 39

• Combines info from the central executive the phonological loop and the VSS (Storage for central executive).
• Limited capacity.
• Maintains a sense of time sequencing (records events that are happening) in chunks or episodes.

Question 40

What are the key features of the Visuo-spatial sketch pad?

Answer 40

• Stores visual and spatial information (colour, size, shape, space, dimension, coordination - visual cache).
• Limited capacity and short duration.
• Held in memory (inner eye).
• Spatial information is the physical relationship between things - inner scribe

Question 41

Evaluate the working memory model

Answer 41

• KF case study, had a greater problem remembering auditory info than visual info suggesting that the damage was limited to the phonological loop.
• Dual (two) tasks- Hitch and Baddeley (1976) demonstrated why you can do two different tasks at the same time but not two similar task(involves the same component).
• Complete role of CE undetermined - patient EVR, good at reasoning tasks but poor decision making skills, both come under CE.
• Use of brain damaged case studies, these are unique to the individual - idiographic approach.

Question 42

Define: forgetting

Answer 42

A persons loss of the ability to recall or recognise something that they have previously learnt.

Question 43

What are the 2 explanations for forgetting?

Answer 43

Interference.

Retrieval failure.

Question 44

Define: interference

Answer 44

When one memory disturbs the ability to recall another, this might result in forgetting/distorting one or the other or both.
This is more likely to happen if the memories are similar.

Question 45

Define: proactive interference

Answer 45

Previously learnt information interferes with the new information you are trying to store.

Question 46

Define: retroactive interference

Answer 46

A new memory interferes with older ones.

Question 47

Evaluate interference as an explanation of forgetting

Answer 47

• Research/Studies of interference are usually laboratory - lacks ecological validity/mundane realism.
• Individual differences - the bigger the working memory span, less likely proactive interference occurs. (Kane et al 2000).
• Only explains forgetting when info is similar.
• Real world applications - Marketing, similar adverts of the same item are not placed together. More cost-effective.

Question 48

Define: retrieval

Answer 48

The process of getting information from LTM involve the information passing back from STM, it is then available for use.

Question 49

Define: retrieval failure

Answer 49

Where the information is in long-term memory but cannot be accessed, it cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present.

Question 50

Define: Cues

Answer 50

A cue acts as a trigger, a hint or clue that can help retrieval of a memory. Cues can be relating to context (external - e.g. environment) or state (internal - e.g. mood).

Question 51

What is context/state dependent forgetting?

Answer 51

Forgetting can occur when the context/state during recall is different from the context/state you were in when you were learning.

Question 52

Briefly explain context-dependent forgetting using Godden and Baddeley’s study

Answer 52

They investigated the effects of contextual cues using scuba-divers as participants.
Then arranged for them to learn a set of words either on land or under water. They were then tested in both conditions, results showed that highest recall occurred when the initial context matched the recall environment.

Question 53

Briefly explain state-dependent forgetting using Goodwin et al’s study

Answer 53

(Overton, 1972) Asked male volunteers to remember a list of words when they were either drunk or sober.
The participants were asked to recall the list after 24 hours when someone sober but others had to get drunk again.
Findings showed that recall was improved when state was the same.

Question 55

Evaluate retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

Answer 55

• Lot of research support - eg. Tulving and Pearlstone showed the value/effectiveness of retrieval cues in a study.
• Real world application eg. Cognitive interview.
• Retrieval cues do not always work.
• Lack ecological validity/mundane realism.

Question 56

Define: Leading question

Answer 56

A question that suggests what answer is desired or leads to the desired answer.

Question 57

Outline the dual task performance case study by Baddeley and Hitch (1976)

Answer 57

Aim: to investigate if participants can use different parts of working memory at the same time.
• Conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform to task at the same time - a digit span task (which requires them to repeat a list of numbers) and a verbal reasoning task (which requires them to answer true or false to various questions).
• Task one was slower than task two, when both tasks involved central executive and articulatory loop. This demonstrates dual task performance effect and shows central executive is one of the components of working memory model.
• The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive and the digit span task made use of the phonological loop.

Question 58

What are the 3 factors affecting accuracy of eyewitness testimony?

Answer 58

Misleading information
Anxiety
The cognitive interview

Question 59

Outline the Loftus and Palmer (1974) case study on eyewitness testimony

Answer 59

Aim: to investigate how information provided to a witness after an event will influence their memory of that event.
Method: 45 student participants were shown short video clips and then split equally into five groups. Participants were asked “about how fast were the cars going when they _____* each other”. Each group was given a different verb *“smashed collided bumped hit or contacted”.
Results: how the question was phrased influenced the participants speed estimates. When the verb ‘smashed’ was used participants estimated that the cars were travelling much faster (41mph) than when the verb ‘contacted’ was used (30mph).
Conclusion: The different speed estimates occurred because the critical word biases a person’s response, memory is altered as a person would then see the accident differently.

Question 60

Evaluate loftus and Palmer - misleading questions

Answer 60

• Lab study - lacks ecological validity/external validity. However with all variables controlled (no confounding), cause and effect can be established.
• Use of 45 students - cannot be generalised/ lacks population validity. Also age could be a confounding variable as Warren et al found that younger children were more susceptible to believe misleading information.
• Real life studies outside of the lab by Yuille and Cutshsall suggest that witnesses tended to have accurate recall of an armed robbery in Canada even after many months. Despite being given two misleading questions, it had less influence on their real EWT.

Question 61

Describe Anxiety as an effect on accuracy of EWT

Answer 61

• Deffenbacher reviewed 21 studies finding a stress-performance relationship proposed by the Yerkes-Dodson Curve (inverted U).
• Johnson and Scott found that two groups: 1 who saw a man leaving an argument holding a greasy pen and 2 who saw a man leave with a bloody knife, recalled accurately the situation with 49% and 33% respectively. Supports weapon focus effect.
• However Christianson et al found that when witnesses to bank robberies were tested in recall, increased anxiety led to improved accuracy.

Question 62

Name a factor that influences the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Answer 62

Anxiety - a state of worry/fear which causes intense stress at the time of the incident.

Question 63

Evaluate the effect of anxiety on EWT

Answer 63

• Research support is based on laboratory setting studies which lack ecological validity. Demand characteristics may also be evident as participants are motivated to engage with the study.
• Proximity to events may be a confounding variable in research studies. As it had been found that real life witnesses who are closest had more accurate recall.

Question 64

What is reconstructive hypothesis?

Answer 64

The suggestion that two kinds of information go into a persons memory:

1. the persons own perception
2. information supplied after the event

Question 65

Define: the weapon focus effect

Answer 65

The view that a weapon in a criminals hand distracts attention (because of the anxiety that it creates) from the other features and therefore reduces accuracy of identification.

Question 66

Define: Arousal

Answer 66

Being alert physically and mentally in which various body systems and hormones are involved and contribute to alertness and readiness to move.
Indicated by increased heart rate and blood pressure.

Question 67

Describe the cognitive interview component: mental reinstatement

Answer 67

The person being interviewed is asked to think back to you that day and recall what they had been doing, what the weather was like, how they felt, etc…

Asking witnesses to record their emotions during the event can help make memories more accessible as the emotions and context act as cues for recall.

Question 68

What is a cognitive interview?

Answer 68

A police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime which encourages them to recreate the original context of the crime in order to increase the accessibility of stored information.

Because our memory is made up of a network of association rather than of discrete events, memories are accessed using multiple retrieval strategies.

Question 69

Describe the cognitive interview component: Report everything

Answer 69

Witness is asked to recall as much as they can,all details even if it doesn’t seem relevant.

Memories are interconnected with one another. Recalling a small, insignificant detail may cue a memory of an important item. Also little details can be pieced together to build a more complete version of events.

Question 69

Describe The cognitive interview component: change the order

Answer 69

Witness is asked to report events in reverse order. Start of the last thing you remember seeing then work backwards to the beginning.

Recalling events backwards helps a person focus on the actual details they witness rather than following a pre-existing set of ideas about the situation or location where the event took place.

Question 71

Describe the cognitive interview component: change the perspective

Answer 71

Witness is asked to imagine they were watching events from another perspective and then to give an account.

Anderson and Pichert:
found when participants recalled a scene from the perspective of a housebuyer and a burglar the kind of details they recalled varied depending on the characters perspective.

Question 71

Evaluate the cognitive interview

Answer 71

• Meta-analysis of 53 studies shows that there is an increase of 34% in amount of correct info generated, compared to standard interviews.
• Designed to enhance quantity without compromising quality of info. Kohnken et al found an 81% increase in correct recall but also a 61% increase in incorrect/false positives, when compared to standard interview.
• Fisher et al: 16 policemen and 47 real participants (who were either witnesses or victims of a crime). Participants were interviewed twice, first by 9 policemen who used the standard interviews and then by the other 7 used cognitive interview. Increase in accuracy by 47% when CI was used.
• CI requires more time and special training.

Question 72

Clive Wearing case study

Answer 72

found to have lost his episodic memory but not procedural suggesting that there is more than one type of LTM store - doesn’t support MSM. As LTM cannot be a unitary store.

Question 73

Define: misleading information

Answer 73

Supplying information that may lead a witness’ memory to be altered.

Question 74

Describe post event discussion

Answer 74

The memory of an event may be altered via CONFORMITY EFFECT (conforming to what other people saw or new information) or REPEATING THE INTERVIEW (more chance of interviewers comments being incorporated into recollection).

Question 75

What are the 3 stages of eyewitness memory?

Answer 75

1. The witness encodes (partially/distorted) into LTM details of the event.
2. The witness retains the information for a period of time (may be lost/modified).
3. The witness retrieves the memory from storage (may not be accurate).