Approaches to Psychology Flashcards
What is introspection?
Latin; ‘looking into’ is the process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states. Allows us to observe our inner world - suggests that data is subjective.
*With sufficient training, mental processes such as memory could be observed systematically as they occurred, using introspection.
Outline two criticisms of introspection as a method of investigation.
- Wundt’s methods were unreliable - relied on non-observable responses and participants reported on their own conscious experiences, subjective.
- Introspection is not particularly accurate - Nisbett and Wilson found that participants were unaware of factors that had been influential in their choice of a consumer item.
Define: Empiricism
The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience.
It is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology.
Explain William Wundt’s contribution to psychology
Wundt was the first person to call himself a psychologist (FOUNDING FATHER), believing that all aspects of nature, including the structure of the human mind could be studied scientifically, he was the FIRST TO CARRY OUT RESEARCH IN THE LAB.
Mental processes could be observed systematically as they occurred using introspection.
What is the scientific method?
All behaviour is seen as being caused (deterministic).
If behaviour is determined then it should be possible to predict how human beings will behave in different conditions (predictability).
What are the 4 goals of psychology?
- Description - what has occurred?
- Explanation - why?
- Prediction - identify future behaviour
- Change - apply knowledge to prevent
Briefly outline the emergence of psychology as a science
- More recently compared to natural sciences such as biology.
- Has its roots in philosophy (tabulata, nature vs. nurture) and biology (genetic explanations).
- Use of the scientific method (eg. Laboratory experiments).
Discuss the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
- Neuroscientists now use neuroimaging techniques to study the brain such as PET scans to help understand how the brain supports different cognitive activities and emotions.
- Burnett et al found that when people feel guilty several brain regions are active, including the medial prefrontal cortex - which is associated with social emotions.
Outline one strength and one limitation of the scientific approach in psychology
- Relies on objective and systematic methods of observation - therefore knowledge is acquired using the scientific method which is able to establish the causes of behaviour.
- Experiments are usually animal studies - problems with generalisability.
Describe classical conditioning (in terms of the behaviourist approach) and its features
Originated from the work of Pavlov. A behavioural response is learned when it becomes associated between a previously neutral stimulus and a reflex response.
- Timing - NS must be shortly before UCS.
- Extinction - CS loses its ability to produce CR after a few trials if no reinforcement.
- Spontaneous recovery - CS + UCS paired again, link made quickly.
- Stimulus generalisation - CR to stimuli that are similar to CS.
Define: reinforcement
Anything that strengthens the response and increases the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.
Positive: when behaviour produces a consequence/reward that is satisfying or pleasant e.g. Food to a hungry animal.
Negative: removing something unpleasant and so restoring the organism to its pre-aversive state e.g. hitting the sleep button on an alarm which allows a person to sleep for longer (pleasant).
Describe operant conditioning (in terms of the behaviourist approach) and its features
Organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours and these behaviours produce consequences which may be positive/negative reinforcement or punishment. Whether or not this behaviour is repeated depends on the nature of these consequences. Skinner.
- Schedules of reinforcement - continuous is more effective for establishing a behaviour, partial is effective for maintaining it.
- Punishment- decreases the likelihood of repeated behaviour as it adds unpleasant consequence or removes a pleasant stimulus. (Eg. When the lever produced electric shocks to rats).
Evaluate the behaviourist approach
~Classical conditioning - led to training of sleep behaviour in babies, dogs and obedience training. Led to the development of therapies such as systematic desensitisation - which replaces a learned anxiety response with a relaxation response.
Reductionist as it portrays humans as far too simple than they are, the theory does not account for the free will and ability for conscious thought.
~Operant conditioning - relies on the experimental method which uses controlled conditions, accuracy is improved and causal relationship identified.
However much of skinners work was on nonhuman animals, excluding the possibility of human free will therefore cannot generalise. Reductionist, focuses only on observable behaviour does not factor in the influence of thoughts and cognitive processes
Define: punishment
Application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result that the behaviour is less likely to occur again in the future.
Describe social learning theory and what are its 4 aspects?
Suggest that learning occurs through not only direct experience and observing the consequences of one’s own behaviour, but also through vicarious learning and the observation of other peoples actions (models) and the consequences they face.
Based on this feedback they develop hypotheses about the types of behaviour most likely to succeed in a given situation. These hypotheses then serve as guides for their future behaviour.
Modelling, imitation, identification and vicarious reinforcement.
+ mediational processes: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation
What is modelling? (SLT)
A form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour.
Live model: someone you can actually contact with.
Symbolic model: someone on the TV.
What is imitation? (SLT)
The action of using someone or something as a model and copy in their behaviour.
This is determined by:
~ Characteristics of the model
~ Observers perceived ability to perform the behaviour
~ Observed consequences of the behaviour
What is identification? (SLT)
A form of influence when an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour because they want to be associated with a particular person or group.
Eg. Same sex models.
What is vicarious reinforcement? (SLT)
Learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour but through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour.
Evaluate social learning theory
- Useful applications including criminal behaviour, which probably increases when they are exposed to models who commit criminal behaviour - Akers (1998).
- (Fox et al) Research support for greater identification with a model leads to more learning, because it is easier to visualise the self in the place of the model, so feels like having the same experience.
- Cannot explain all behaviour particularly when there appears to be no apparent role model for individuals to have learnt from (e.g. when psychopathic behaviours are limited to just one individual within the family).
- Does not account for other potential influences on behaviour such as genetic predisposition or locus of control.
Describe the cognitive approach
Studies internal mental processing (ways in which we extract, store and retrieve information) that helps to guide our behaviour.
Mental processes cannot be studied directly so must be inferred.
This is achieved through the role of schemas (cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret new info in the brain) and the role of theoretical/computer models (simplified pictorial representations based on current evidence).
Evaluate the cognitive approach
- Useful applications - E.g. has been used to explain how dysfunctional behaviour can be traced back to faulty thinking processes, which has led to successful treatment of people suffering from illness such as OCD using CBT.
- Uses scientific methods (brain imaging) so conclusions are based on far more than common sense or introspection (both can be misleading).
- Ignores the WHY and focuses on the HOW, the role of emotion and motivation has largely been ignored by this approach.
- Many studies into cognitive psychology tend to use task that have little to do with everyday behaviour in their natural settings, lacking validity.
Describe the biological approach (in terms of the influence of genes on behaviour)
Explains how all aspects of behaviour is related to biological functioning (genetics, neurochemistry and hormonal changes) and therefore has a genetic basis.
~Each individual possesses a unique gene set, therefore we differ from each other in personality, intelligence, etc. Heritability.
~Genes - can carry the instructions for a particular characteristic such as temperaments but how this characteristic develop depends on the interaction of the gene with others and environment.
~Genotype/phenotype
Describe the biological approach (in terms of the influence of biological structures on behaviour)
- The nervous system carries neurotransmitters - many aspects of behaviour are under neuronal control including breathing, eating and sexual behaviour.
- The outer surface of the cerebrum (cerebral cortex) is responsible for many of the higher order functions such as thought and language.
