Forensics

Question 1

Define: Crime

Answer 1

An act committed in violation of the law where the consequence of conviction by a court is punishment.

Question 2

What are the problems associated with the crime definition?

Answer 2

• Historical issues - laws are often subject to change (eg. Homosexuality)
• Cultural issues - cultural variations (eg. Bigamy)
• Not all acts that break the law are punishable

Question 3

What are the 3 ways of measuring crime?

Answer 3

1. Official statistics
2. Victim surveys
3. Offender surveys

Question 4

Describe official statistics

Answer 4

• Official statistics are government records of the total number of crimes reported to police and recorded in official figures.
• These allow the government to develop crime prevention strategies and policing initiatives.

Question 5

Describe victim surveys

Answer 5

• Victim surveys record people’s experience of crime over a specific period of time, and whether or not they have been reported to the police.
• 50,000 randomly selected households in England and Wales.

Question 6

Describe offender surveys

Answer 6

• Offender surveys involve individuals volunteering details of the number and types of crimes they have committed, over a specified period.
• Target groups of likely offenders based on ‘risk factors’ such as previous convictions.

Question 7

Evaluate defining and measuring crime

Answer 7

• Official statistics is unreliable, underestimating the extent of the crime - unreported/unrecorded crimes cannot be included - only 25% are. Some areas report crime more, eg. Nottinghamshire record thefts of under £10.
• Victim surveys have a greater degree of accuracy, more likely to include details of crime - 2006/7, official status said 2% decrease in crime whereas victim surveys said 3% increase. However, victim survey relies on recall so telescoping can occur.
• Offender survey responses are unreliable - may want to conceal/exaggerate the number of crimes committed. Also certain types of crime such as burglary are over represented whilst ‘middle-class’ offences are unlikely to be included.
• When measuring crime, political parties will interpret differently - party in power will emphasise statistics which show that crime is falling, opposing parties would focus on measures that make the party look bad.

Question 8

Define: Offender profiling

Answer 8

A behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile characteristics of unknown criminals.

Question 9

Describe the top-down approach

Answer 9

• Originated in the US, also known as ‘the American approach’ or the ‘typology approach’.
• What is known about the crime and the offender is matched to a pre-existing template that the FBI developed.
• Offenders are classified in to one of two categories (organised or disorganised) on the basis of the evidence from the crime scene and witness accounts.
• Both classifications are distinct due to the basis that serious offenders have certain ways of thinking, known as their ‘modus operandi’. These generally correlate with a particular set of social and psychological characteristics that relate to the individual.

Question 10

Describe organised offenders

Answer 10

• Show evidence of having planned the crime in advance; the victim is deliberately targeted and will often reflect that the offender has a ‘type’
• Maintain a high degree of control during the crime with almost detached surgical precision.
• Little evidence left behind at the crime scene. Tend to be of above-average intelligence, in a skilled profession.
• Social and sexually competent, they are usually married with kids.

Question 11

Describe disorganised offenders

Answer 11

• Show little evidence of planning; suggests offence was spontaneous, spur of the moment act.
• Crime scene tends to reflect the impulsive nature of the attack - body is still at the scene and there appears to have been very little control during the crime.
• Tend to have a lower than average IQ and be in unskilled work or unemployed.
• Often have a history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships. Tend to live alone, relatively close to the site of offence.

Question 12

How is an FBI profile constructed?

Answer 12

• Data assimilation - the profiler reviews the evidence (e.g. Crime scene photographs)
• Crime scene classification - organised or disorganised
• Crime reconstruction - hypotheses made, in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of victim, etc…
• Profile generation - hypotheses are related to the likely offender, e.g. Their demographic background.

Question 13

Evaluate the top-down approach

Answer 13

• Only applied to particular crimes - crime scene must reveal important details about the suspect, only possible in rape, arson, etc…More common offences such as burglary, it cannot be applied to. Therefore a limiting approach.
• Based on outdated models of personality - typology classification assumes that offenders behaviour remains consistent across all situations and contexts. Alison et al suggested that this approach only sees behaviour driven by stable dispositional traits, rather than external factors.
• Contradicting evidence for disorganised offender - Canter et al used smallest space analysis to analyse data from 100 murders in the USA. Case details examined with reference to 39 expected characteristics of killers, yet findings only proved a distinct organised type.

Question 14

Describe the bottom-up approach

Answer 14

• The British model. Profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses about the likely offender, e.g. Routine behaviour.
• Unlike the top-down approach, it doesn’t begin with fixed typologies, instead the profile is ‘data-driven’ using systematic analysis of the crime scene.
• Investigative psychology is used as well as geographical profiling.

Question 15

Describe investigative psychology

Answer 15

• A form of bottom-up profiling that matches details from the crime scene with statistical analysis of typical offender behaviour patters. This acts as a ‘baseline’ for comparison.
• Once matched it can reveal important details about the offender (e.g. Family background). This can also determine if a series of offences are related or not.
• Central to the approach is interpersonal coherence - the way an offender behaves at the scene may reflect their behaviour in everyday situations. This could inform the profiler of the offenders daily interactions with others.
• The significance of time and place, as in geographical profiling, may indicate where the offender lives.
• Forensic awareness describes those who have experienced police interrogation before, so are mindful in covering their tracks.

Question 16

Describe geographical profiling

Answer 16

• First described by Rossmo in 1997, uses information of the location of linked crime scenes to make interferences about the likely home of the offender - know as ‘crime mapping’.
• Can be used in conjunction with psychological theory to create hypotheses about the offenders modus operandi.
• Assumes that serial offenders will restrict crimes to familiar geographical areas, so understanding the spatial pattern can provide a ‘centre of gravity’ which the investigators can use to predict where the next crime will be - jeopardy surface.
• Canter’s circle theory proposed two models of offender behaviour: the marauder (operates in close proximity to their home base) and the commuter (travelled a distance from their usual residence). Such spatial consistency can offer insight, e.g. The offenders usual mode of transport

Question 17

Evaluate the bottom-up approach

Answer 17

• Evidence to support the investigative psychology - Canter and Heritage conducted a content analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. Using smallest space analysis, several characteristics were identified as common in offending behaviour, e.g. The use of impersonal language. This shows the usefulness as it can be applied.
• Evidence to support geographical profiling - Lundrigan and Canter collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the USA. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the killers, with the offenders base located in the centre of the pattern. The effect was most noticeable for the marauder type model.
• Studies examining the effectiveness of offender profiling have produced mixed results - Copson surveyed 48 police forces and found that the advice provided by the profiler was ‘useful’ 83% of cases but in only 3% did lead to accurate identification.

Question 18

What is smallest space analysis?

Answer 18

A statistical technique which identified correlations screeds patterns of behaviour.

Question 19

Why is the bottom up approach seen as more beneficial, compared to the top-down approach?

Answer 19

• Bottom-up approach has more scientific basis than the top-down approach - Canter’s argument is that it’s more objective as it’s grounded in evidence. With the aid of advanced AI, investigators are able to manipulate geographical, biographical and psychological data quickly to produce insights.
• Bottom-up approach had a much wider application to many more other offences. Smallest space analysis can be used in the investigation of crimes such as burglary, as well as more serious offences such as rape.

Question 20

Describe the atavistic form as a biological explanation

Answer 20

• A historical approach to offending, proposed by Lombroso, that attributes criminal activity to a lack of evolutionary development.
• Offenders are viewed as genetic throwbacks, who are biologically different from non-criminals. Such individuals are distinguished by particular facial and cranial characteristics.
• Atavistic characteristics - narrow/sloping brow, strong jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry, dark skin and existence of extra toes, nipples or fingers. Murderers - bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears. Sexual deviants - glinting eyes, swollen/fleshy lips and projecting ears.
• Other aspects - insensitivity to pain, use of criminal slang, tattoos and unemployment.
• Lombroso’s research: examined Italian convicts - 383 dead criminals and 3839 living ones, concluding that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics.

Question 21

Evaluate the atavistic form

Answer 21

• Contradictory evidence - Goring attempted to replicate Lombroso’s findings by comparing 3000 criminals with 3000 non-criminals, concluded there was no significant differences between the two groups. However, he did suggest that many offenders have lower than average intelligence.
• Scientific racism - DeLisi drew attention to the racial undertones within Lombroso’s research (e.g. Darkskin and curly hair) which is found amongst the African descent. Contributes to eugenic philosophies, even though it may not have been intended.
• ‘Father of modern criminology’ - contributed to criminology by shifting the emphasis in crime research away from moralistic discourse and towards a more scientific/credible realm.
• Correlation is not causation - facial and cranial differences may be influenced by other factors such as poverty/diet. In his later work, Lombroso realised criminals can be made as well as born.

Question 22

What is the genetic explanation of offending behaviour? (Biological explanation)

Answer 22

• Genetic explanations for crime suggests that offenders inherit a gene/combination of genes, that predispose them to commit crime - this is illustrated by twin studies.
• Lange (1930) investigated 13 identical and 17 non-identical twins, where one of the twins had served time in prison. Lange found that 10 of the identical twins and only 2 of the non-identical twins had a co-twin who was also in prison.
• Similarly, Christiansen (1977) studied 87 MZ and 147 DZ pairs and found a concordance of 33% for MZs and 12% for DZs.
• A genetic analysis of almost 900 offenders by Tiihonen et al (2014) revealed abnormalities on two candidate genes, which may be associated with violent crime: The MAOA gene controls dopamine and serotonin in the brain and has been linked with aggressive behaviour. CDH13 has been linked to substance abuse and attention deficit disorder.
• Diathesis-stress model: genetic predisposition triggered by biological/psychological factors, e.g. Being raised by a criminal parent.

Question 23

What is the neural explanation of offending behaviour? (Biological explanation)

Answer 23

• Neural explanations for crime suggests there may be neural differences between the brains of criminals and non-criminals, in terms of activity of brain structures and neurotransmitters.
• Raine conducted many studies of the APD brain (antisocial personality disorder - characterises many convicted criminals), and reported that APD individuals have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex (regulated emotional behaviour).
• Raine et al (2000) found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of people with APD, compared to controls.

Question 24

Evaluate the biological explanation of offending behaviour

Answer 24

• Problems with twin studies used to explain crime as genetic - Lange’s research was poorly controlled and judgements related to zygosity were based on appearance rather than DNA testing. Small sample size cannot be generalised, also twins are reared in the same environment (confounding variable affecting concordance rates). Lacks validity.
• Supporting evidence for diathesis-stress model of crime - Mednick et al (1984) conducted a major study of over 13,000 Danish adoptees. Found when neither the biological nor adoptive parents had at least one conviction, the percentage of adoptees that did was 13.5%, this rose to 20% when either parents had convictions, and 24.5% when both biological and adoptive parents had convictions.
• Criminality is complex, explanations that reduce offending behaviour to a biological level may be too simplistic. Even though there is often a difference in concordance rates between MZ and DZ twins, MZ pairs do not show 100% concordance. Reductionism.

Question 25

Outline Eysenck’s theory as a psychological explanation

Answer 25

General personality theory - Eysenck (1947) proposed that behaviour could be represented along two dimensions: introversion/extraversion (E) and neuroticism/stability (N). Later added psychoticism (P) as the third dimension, all combine to form a variety of personality traits.

• Biological basis
• The criminal personality
• The role of socialisation
• Measuring the criminal personality

Question 26

Describe the biological basis of Eysenck’s theory

Answer 26

Personality traits are biological in origin and come about through the type of nervous system we inherit. Therefore the criminal personality type has an innate, biological basis.
Extraverts have an underactive NS which means they constantly seek excitement and stimulation, likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours.
Neurotic individuals tend to be nervous, jumpy and over-anxious. Their general instability means their behaviour is difficult to predict.

Question 27

Describe the criminal personality of Eysenck’s theory

Answer 27

An individual who scored highly on measure of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism.
They cannot easily be conditioned, are often characterised as cold, unemotional and prone to aggression, and is likely to engage in offending behaviour.

Question 28

Describe the role of socialisation in Eysenck’s theory

Answer 28

Personality is linked to criminal behaviour via socialisation processes.
Eysenck saw criminal behaviour as developmentally immature, in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification - they are impatient and cannot wait for things.
Individuals who had a criminal personality have a NS that made them hard to condition, so they would not learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety.

Question 29

Describe how to measure the criminal personality of Eysenck’s theory

Answer 29

He developed the Eysenck’s personality Inventory (EPI) - a form of psychological test which located respondents along the E and N dimensions.
This would determine their personality type, a later scale was introduced to measure psychoticism.

Question 30

Evaluate Eysenck’s theory as a psychological explanation of offending behaviour

Answer 30

Supporting evidence - Eysenck and Eysenck (1977) compared 2070 male prisoners’ scores on the EPI with 2422 male controls. Age was controlled. On all scales (E, N and P) prisoners recorded higher scores that controls.
Cultural bias - Barton and Holanchock (1979) studied Hispanic and African-American offenders in a maximum security prison in New York and divided them into 6 groups based on their criminal history and nature of offence. Found that all 6 groups were less extra very then a non-criminal control group.

Question 31

What is the cognitive explanation of offending behaviour?

Answer 31

• Level of moral reasoning - moral reasoning refers to the process by which an individual draws upon their own value system to determine whether an action is right or wrong. Kohlberg attempted to objectify this process by identifying different levels of reasoning based on answers to moral dilemmas (e.g. Heinz dilemma). Many studies suggest that criminals tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning that non-criminals.

• Kohlberg’s model and criminality
• Cognitive distortions - hostile attribution bias and minimalisation/minimisation

Question 32

What is Kohlberg’s model of criminality? (Cognitive explanation)

Answer 32

• Criminal offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg’s model (stages 1 and 2). Whereas non-criminals are at the conventional level and beyond.
• The pre-conventional level if characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards, it is associated with less mature, ‘childlike’ reasoning. Thus, adults and adolescents who reason at this level may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards from it (e.g. Money).
• This assumption is supported by studies which suggest that often are often more egocentric and display poorer social perspective-taking skills than non-offender peers (e.g. Chandler, 1973).

Question 33

Describe cognitive distortions (cognitive explanation)

Answer 33

• These are faulty, biased and irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves, other people and the world inaccurately (and usually negatively).

• Two examples:
~Hostile attribution bias
The tendency to judge ambiguous situations, or the actions of others, as aggressive and confrontational when in reality they may not be.
Schönenberg and Justye (2014) presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. When compared to control group, offenders more likely to perceive images as angry and hostile.

~Minimalisation
A type of deception that involves downplaying the significance of an extent or emotion. A common strategy when dealing with feelings of guilt.
Barbaree (1991) found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused the victim.

Question 34

Evaluate the cognitive explanation of offending behaviour

Answer 34

• Supporting evidence for moral reasoning - Palmer and Holin. Compared moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders, 123 male non-offenders, and 126 convicted offenders using the SRM-SF, which contains 11 moral dilemmas. Found that the delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning that the non-delinquent group.
• Understanding cognitive distortion has led to application of research in treating criminal behaviour. CBT is used in the rehabilitation of sex offenders as it encourages a less distorted view of their actions by challenging their cognitive. Studies suggest that a reduced incidence of minimalisation in therapy is highly correlated with a reduced risk of reoffending.
• Level of moral reasoning may depend on the type of offence, individual differences. Thornton and Reid found that individuals who committed crime for financial gain (robbery) were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crime (assault), where reasoning of any kind tended not to be evident. Langdon et al have suggested that intelligence may be a better predictor of criminality that moral reasoning. This would explain why some groups of people with very low intelligent are less likely to commit crime, despite showing lower levels of moral reasoning.

Question 35

Describe the differential association theory as a psychological explanation of offending behaviour

Answer 35

An explanation of offending which proposed that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour.

• Scientific basis
• Crime as a learned behaviour
• Pro-criminal attitudes
• Learning criminal acts

Question 36

Describe the scientific basis of the differential association theory

Answer 36

• Edwin Sutherland set himself the take of developing a set of scientific principle that could explain all types of offending.
• His theory is designed to discriminate between individuals who become criminals and those who do not, whatever their race/class/ethnic background.

Question 37

Describe crime as a learned behaviour (differential association theory)

Answer 37

• Offending behaviour may be acquired the same way as any other behaviour, via the process of learning.
• Learning occurs most often through interactions with significant others that the child associates with.
• Criminality therefore arises from two factors: learned attitudes towards crime, and the learning of specific criminal acts.

Question 38

Describe pro-criminal attitudes (differential association theory)

Answer 38

• When socialised into a group, a person would be exposed to different values/attitudes towards the law, some of which would be pro-crime.
• Sutherland argued that if the number of pro-criminal attitudes acquired outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes, an individual will go on to offend. The learning process is the same, whether a person if learning criminality or conformity to the law.
• Differential association suggests that it should be possible to mathematically predict offending behaviour, once the frequency, intensity and duration of exposure to these attitudes is known.

Question 39

Describe learning criminal acts (differential association theory)

Answer 39

• The would-be offender can also learn particular techniques for committing crime, these might include how to break into a house through a locked window for example.
• Sutherlands theory can account not only for how crime might ‘breed’ amongst specific social groups, but also can account for why so many convicts released from prison will reoffend.
• Whilst inside, prison inmates will learn specific techniques of offending from other (more experienced) criminals. This learning may occur though observational learning and imitation, or direct tuition from criminal peers.

Question 40

Evaluate the differential association theory

Answer 40

• Can account for crime within all sectors of society. Sutherland recognised that some types of crime such as burglary may be clustered within inner-city, working-class communities whereas other ‘white-collar’ crime may be a feature of middle-class social groups who share deviant values. Great explanatory power.
• Sutherland successfully shifted the focus away from early biological accounts of crime (atavistic), allowing us to understand crime further. DAT draws attention to dysfunctional social circumstances being the blame for criminality, rather than dysfunctional people.
• Differential association theory is still difficult to test, despite aiming to provide a scientific, mathematical framework in which future offending behaviour can be predicted. Hard to measure attitudes mathematically, without this it is difficult to know exactly at what point the urge to offend is realised and the criminal career triggered.

Question 41

Describe the psychodynamic theory of offending behaviour

Answer 41

• A group of theories influenced by the work of Freud which share the belief that unconscious conflicts, rooted in early childhood and determined by interactions with parents, drive future criminal behaviour.
• Two theories:

1. The inadequate superego
2. Maternal deprivation theory

Question 42

Outline the inadequate superego as a psychodynamic explanation of offending behaviour

Answer 42

• Superego works on the ‘morality principle’ and exerts its influence by punishing the ego through guilt for wrongdoing or the rewarding it with pride for moral behaviour.
• Blackburn argued that if the superego is inadequate then criminal behaviour is inevitable, as then the id is not properly controlled.
•Three proposed types of inadequate superego:
~Weak superego: same-sex parent is absent during phallic stage, child cannot internalise a fully framed superego as there is no identification.
~Deviant superego: if the superego that he child internalised has immoral values this would lead to offending behaviour.
~Over-harsh superego: individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety. Therefore offending behaviour may satisfy the superego’s overwhelming need for punishment.

Question 43

Outline the maternal deprivation theory as a psychodynamic explanation of offending behaviour

Answer 43

• Bowlby argued that the ability to form meaningful relationships in adulthood was dependent on the child forming a continuous relationship with mother-figure.
• Failure to do so during the critical period means the child would experience a number of damaging and irreversible consequences in later life.
• One of these is the development of affectionless psychopathy- characterised by a lack of guilt, empathy and feeling for others. These individuals are likely to engage in acts of delinquency.
• Bowlby’s ‘44 juvenile thieves study’ supported his claims - explain this!

Question 44

Evaluate the psychodynamic explanation of offending behaviour

Answer 44

• Gender bias as it assumes that girls develop a weaker superego than boys. Having not experienced castration anxiety, girls are less pressured to identify with their mothers than boys are with their fathers - so their sense of morality is less fully realised. This should mean that females should be more prone to criminal behaviour. But Hoffman (1975) found hardly any evidence of gender differences, and when there was, little girls trended to be more moral than little boys.
• Little evidence that children raised without a same-sex parent are less law-abiding as adults, contradicting Blackburn’s weak superego. Also the idea of an overharsh superego as an explanation for crime seems implausible, some criminals go to great lengths to cover up the crime they committed as they want to avoid punishment.
• Lack of falsifiability. Many unconscious concepts within Freudian theory mean that applications to crime are not open to empirical testing. Arguments such as the inadequate superego can only be judged on their face value rather than scientific worth. ‘Pseudoscience’ may contribute little to understanding of crime and how to prevent it.

Question 45

How is custodial sentencing used to deal with offending behaviour?

Answer 45

• Custodial sentencing is a judicial sentence determine by a court, to decide whether the offender is punished by incarceration or in another closed institution such as a young offenders institute or a psychiatric hospital.

• Four main reasons for doing this: 
Deterrence 
Incapacitation 
Retribution
Rehabilitation

Question 46

Describe deterrence as an aim for custodial sentencing

Answer 46

• The unpleasant prison experience is designed to put off the individual and society from engaging in offending behaviour.
• General deterrence - aims to send a broad message to members of society that crime will not be tolerated.
• Individual deterrence - should prevent the individual from repeating the same crime in light of their experience.
• This view is based on the behaviourist idea of conditioning through punishment.

Question 47

Describe incapacitation as an aim for custodial sentencing

Answer 47

• Offender is taken out of society to prevent them reoffending as a means of protecting the public.
• The need for incapacitation is likely to depend on the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender. E.g. Society would need more protection from a serial killer than someone committing tax evasion.

Question 48

Describe retribution as an aim for custodial sentencing

Answer 48

• Society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer, the level of suffering should be proportionate to the severity of the crime.
• Based on biblical notion of ‘eye for an eye’ - many see prison as the best possible option in this sense, criticising other options as too ‘soft’.

Question 49

Describe rehabilitation as an aim for custodial sentencing

Answer 49

• The main objective of prison in this sense is to reform the offender, rather than to purely punish.
• Offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to integrate back into society. Therefore prisons should provide therapeutic opportunities to develop the individual.

Question 50

What are the three psychological effects of custodial sentencing?

Answer 50

• Stress and depression - suicide rates are considerably higher in prison than in the general population, as are incidents of self-mutilation and self-harm.
• Institutionalisation - having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life, inmates no longer be able to function back in society.
• Prisonisation - refers to the way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting an ‘inmate code’. Behaviour that is unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged/rewarded in prison.

Question 51

What is the problem of recidivism? (In terms of custodial sentencing)

Answer 51

• Reoffending is the tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behaviour (in terms of criminality).
• Most UK Offenders will reoffend within a year of release, with the UK and USA possessing some of the highest rates of recidivism in the world.

Question 52

Define: Restorative Justice

Answer 52

A system for dealing with criminal behaviour which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders, through reconciliation with victims. This enables the offender to see the impact of their crime and serves to empower victims by giving them a voice.

Question 53

What are the key features of restorative justice?

Answer 53

John Braithwaite (2004) ‘Crime hurts, Justice should heal’

• Focuses on acceptance of responsibility and positive change/outcomes for offenders (and possibly survivor), less emphasis on punishment.
• Not restricted to courtrooms, survivors and offenders may voluntarily choose to meet under supervision by a trained mediator.
• Active rather than passive involvement of all parties in the process.

Question 54

What is the restorative Justice council? (RJC)

Answer 54

The RJC is an independent body whose role is to establish clear standards for the use of restorative Justice, and to support victims and specialists professionals.

Advocates the use of restorative Justice as a way to manage conflicts in many areas, e.g. Schools or workplaces.

Question 55

Evaluate restorative Justice

Answer 55

• Strength in diversity of programme, which custodial sentencing lacks - flexible to fit needs and can be applied over many institutions.
• Success relies on the extent to which the offender is remorseful - e.g. Won’t work if they signed up to avoid prison or wanted to reduce their sentence. The victim may also have the motive of revenge/retribution.
• A 7yr gov funded these project conducted by Shapland et al (2007) concluded that every £1 spent on RJ would save the criminal justice system £8 through reduced offending. However needs a specialists, expensive - may not be the most cost-effective.

Question 56

Define: behaviour modification

Answer 56

An application of the behaviourist approach to the management of offenders in penal institutions. Based on the principles of operant conditioning, the general aim is to replace undesirable behaviour with more desirable bus the selective use of reinforcement.

• Token economy
• Changing behaviour
• Research example

Question 57

How are token economies and example of behaviour modification in custody?

Answer 57

• Based on operant conditioning, it reinforces desirable behaviour with a token that can be exchanged for a reward (e.g. More phone call time).
• Desirable behaviour within the prison can take many forms such as avoiding conflict or following prison rules.
• Tokens are secondary reinforcers as they derive their value from their association with a reward - which will vary between institutions.
• Non-compliance to prison rules may result in the tokens and its associated privileges being withheld (punishment).

Question 58

Give a research example of behaviour modification

Answer 58

• Hobbs and Holt (1976) introduced a token economy programme to groups of young delinquents across 3 behavioural units (and a 4th unit as a control group).
• They observed significant difference in positive behaviour compared to the non-token economy (control) group.
• A similar effect was found with offenders in an adult prison (Allyon et al, 1979).

Question 59

Evaluate behaviour modification

Answer 59

• Behaviour modification is easy to implement in prison - no need for specialists (e.g. In anger management) and is cost effective. However Basset and Blanchard (1977) found any benefits were lost after prison staff applied the techniques inconsistently, due to factors such as lack of training.
• According to Ronald Blackburn, behaviour modification has ‘little rehabilitative value’ and positive changes in behaviour may be lost when released from prison. Progress cannot extend beyond custodial setting as good behaviour isn’t always reinforced. Also, rewards of breaking the law, e.g. Group status may be more powerful.
• Ethical issues surrounding the use of token economies. ‘Manipulative and dehumanising’ (Moya and Achtenburg, 1964). Withdrawal of privileges (e.g. Contact with loved ones) is unethical.

Question 60

Define: Anger management

Answer 60

A therapeutic programme that involves identifying the signs that trigger anger, and learning techniques to calm down and deal with such situations positively.

The aim is not to prevent anger, but to recognise and mange it. Can be offered in prison to encourage self-awareness and facilitate rehabilitation.

Question 61

Describe the cognitive behaviour treatment in terms of anger management

Answer 61

Novaco (1975) suggests that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal (anger), which is often quick to surface especially in situations that are perceived to be threatening.
In behaviourist term, becoming angry is reinforced by the individuals feeling of control in that situation.
Therefore anger management is a form of CBT as it teaches the individual to recognise loss of control and to resolve conflicts peacefully.
• Three stages of CBT

Question 62

What are the 3 stages of CBT - anger management (Calm People Should Avoid Angry People)

Answer 62

1. Cognitive preparation - requires offender to reflect on past experience and consider typical pattern of their anger in order to identify situations which act as triggers to anger. Therapists makes them question whether the event is irrational.
2. Skill acquisition - offenders are introduced to a range of techniques to help them deal with anger more rationally. Techniques can be cognitive (self-talk to calm down), behavioural (training in how to communicate better) or physiological (methods of relaxation/mediation/breathing).
3. Application practice - offenders are given the opportunity to practise their skills in a carefully monitored role play. Re-enacting scenarios that have previously escalated, requires some commitment from the offender.

Question 63

Give a research example of anger management

Answer 63

Keen et al (2000) studied the progress made with young offenders aged between 17 and 21 who took part in an anger management programme.
Although there were initial issues in terms of offenders not taking the course seriously, the final outcomes were generally positive.
Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self-control.

Question 64

Evaluate anger management

Answer 64

• Limited long-term effectiveness - Blackburn points out that despite working in short term, there is little evidence to suggest that it reduces recidivism. Perhaps because the application phase relies heavily on artificial role play (lacks mundane realism).
• Tries to tackle one of the causes of offending, unlike behaviour modification - attempts to address though process via CBT, which may give offenders insight into the cause of their criminality. More likely than behaviour modification to lower rates of recidivism.
• Assumption that there is a causal relationship between anger and offending, which this theory suggests, may be false. Loza (1999) used psychometric measured and found no differences in levels of anger between offenders classed as violent and non-violent. Also not all crimes are motivated by anger, e.g. Fraud.