memory Flashcards

Question

what was the conclusion of Baddeley's study into encoding in the short term memory?

Answer 1

Concluded STM encodes information acoustically.

Answer 2

Modified experiment Made the list ten words long,stopped rehearsal.each list four times and tested 20 minutes later . Acoustic similarity wasn’t significantly different but semantic was Concluded that LTM is mainly semantically encoded.

Answer 3

Atkinson and Shiffrin

Answer 4

sensory store/register short term memory long term memory

Answer 5

Consists of the eyes, ears,nose,fingers,tongue and the corresponding areas of the brain. Two main stores of information: the Iconic memory which deals with visual information and the echoic store which deals with auditory information

Answer 6

Attention: on the information you pay attention to will pass from the SR to the STM. anything else will decay. Maintenance rehearsal. STM occurs when we repeat information until it passes into our LTM. if not it decays. Elaborate rehearsal: STM-LTM giving information meaning and deeper processing. Retrieval: getting information back from LTM to STM, so it can be used.

Answer 7

Supported by research such as Baddeley's experiment shows us that the information is coded acoustically in the short term memory but semantically in the Long term memory. So there are different stores.

Answer 8

KF, an amnesia patient (Shallice and Warrington 1970) struggled with verbal memory but not visual memory. Which suggests that there is more than one store in STM. According to the multi store model the amount of rehearsal is important, but Craik and Watkins 1973 found that this prediction is wrong because they found that elaborative rehearsal is more necessary than maintenance rehearsal. Multi store model focuses too much on maintenance. All the studies used to create the model store memory as they all used artificial materials and environment. Also evidence to suggest that the LTM is not one store and that there are multiple aspects of the LTM. for example Clive Wearing.

Answer 9

Episodic memory Semantic memory Procedural memory

Answer 10

Was one of the first cognitive psychologists to realise that the multi-store model’s view of the LTM was too simplistic and inflexible.

Answer 11

Refers to the ability to recall events from our own lives. Personally links to you. They are time stamped (you remember when they happen) Will include several elements in the format of the memory Consciously recalled. May recalled quickly but still needs to have a conscious effort to be recalled

Answer 12

Refers to memories that relate to knowledge of the world. Likened to a combination of an encyclopaedia and a dictionary. Not time stamped Less personal and more facts we all share

Answer 13

Refers to our memory for actions skills Can recall without conscious awareness Good example is driving a car- this skill depends on procedural memory These are the sorts of skills we might find difficult to explain to someone else Has to be specific eg experienced drivers

Answer 14

Baddeley and Hitch 1974

Answer 15

The working memory model(WMM is a model that explains how the STM works. It suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub-units coordinated by a central decision making system (a computer which can place information into lots of separate areas to deal with) The WMM is concerned with the part of the mind is active when we are temporarily storing and manipulation inform for the environment

Answer 16

The central executives role is to organise where memories go to and where they are stored. It is the main control. Is an attentional process that monitors incoming data. It will allocate the correct slave system to take that memory. Has a limited processing capacity. Cannot hold data for long from the senses.

Answer 17

One of the slave systems (limited capacity) Main role is to process auditory information and it preserves the order in which the information arrives. Articulatory control system: Allows for maintenance rehearsal. The capacity of this loop is believed to be 2 seconds. (inner voice. Phonological store: Is a subdivision of the phonological loop which stores the words you hear.(inner ear)

Answer 18

Another slave system and It processes visual or spatial information when required. The capacity is limited to about 3-4 objects. Visual cache Stores visual data Inner scribe Records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.

Answer 19

storage component of the central executive. It is a temporary store for information, it integrates the visual,spatial and verbal information processes by the other stores. Takes excess information from the central executive and allows us to switch from visuo-spatial to auditory and it links working memory to long term memory. Limited capacity of approximately 4 chunks.

Answer 20

Shallice and Warrington 1970 KF case study. After the damage KF had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information. Baddeley participants found it more difficult doing two visual tasks and then a verbal and a visual task. Supports the idea that there are two separate stores Baddeley demonstrated that it is more difficult to remember a list of long words compared to a list of short words. There is finite space for rehearsal for about 2 seconds. research support for a key component. Brain scanning studies support the WMM Braver et al 1997 gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive when they were having a brain scan. Greater activity in the left prefrontal cortex.the activity increased as the difficulty of the task did . Scientific evidence supports a key aspect of the working memory model.

Answer 21

Cognitive psychologists suggest that this component is unsatisfactory and doesn’t really explain any of the mechanisms. Baddeley himself recognised that “the central executive is the most important but least understood component of the working memory”. This is limited as it hasn’t been fully explained which undermines the validity of the model as a whole.

Answer 22

Interference theory The theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with one another and ends up disrupting each other which leads to forgetting Baddeley 1999 Retrieval failure Tulving The theory that forgetting is due to retrieval failure where there isn’t enough cues to access the memory.

Answer 23

Retroactive memory interference Recent information hinders the recall of older information Proactive interference Past information hinders the recall of new information

Answer 24

Underwood and postman 1960 Mcgeoch and Mcdonald 1931 Baddeley and Hitch 1977

Answer 25

Aim does new learning interferes with previous

Answer 26

PTTS were divided into two groups. Group a were asked to learn a list of word pairs. They were then asked to learn a second list of word pairs where the second word pair was different. Group B only were asked to recall the first list.

Answer 27

Result Group B recall was better than the recall of group A Conclusion This suggests that learning the items in the second lsit interfered with the PPTS ability to recall the first list. This is an example of Retroactive interference.

Answer 28

Studied retroactive interference by varying the amount of similarity between sets of word lists presented to participants

Answer 29

Procedure All PPTS had a learn a word list of 10 words to 100% accuracy. Then split into six groups and each group was required to learn a new list. Each group had to learn one of the six word lists below: Synonyms Antonyms Unrelated words go list 1 Nonsense syllables Three digit numbers No new list

Answer 30

The most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall. Showing that interference is strong when memories are similar Those who had learned synonyms in the secondly list were significantly impaired down to 12% Conclusion Similar information is more likely to be interfered with.

Answer 31

Asked rugby players to recall the names of teams they recently played. However, not all players had played every match

Answer 32

therefore their recall would be better than those who had played every match. This provides evidence of retroactive interference of forgetting

Answer 33

All lab experiments for interference can be seen as research support and they all found the same thing suggests that the theory has a high level of validity. SUPPORT There are real life studies for example Baddeley and Hitch 1977. In this study they asked rugby players whether they knew team names. Found out that their recall was better if they played less matches. Has high ecological validity

Answer 34

The stimulus materials used in most studies are word lists. Artificial material will be lacking ecological validity and it will make interference more likely. LIMITATION. Time periods are relatively short. Thai means that a participant may have to learn one list of words and learn a second list 20 minutes later and then recall one of them a few minutes later. Doesn’t reflect how things are learnt and questions the validity of experiments investigating interference. LIMITATIon Interference effects may be overcome by learning using cues. Comes from Tulving and Psotka 1971 gave partici[pants lists of 24 words into six categories. Categories were not explicit but it was presumed that they would be obvious. Recall was about 70% for the first word but this fell as they were given each list. When they were given a cued recall test recall came up to 70%. LIMITATION

Answer 35

Two types of cue dependent forgetting Context The situation (external environment) State Your physical state (internal cues)

Answer 36

states that memory is improved when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval

Answer 37

Godden Baddeley

Answer 38

asked divers to learn a list of words either underwater or on land. They were then asked to recall the words either in the same place they had learnt the list or in the opposite place The four conditions Learn on land recall on land Learn on land recall underwater Learn underwater recall underwater Learn underwater recall on land

Answer 39

Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching conditions because the external cues were different from the ones art recall and this led to retrieval failure

Answer 40

Carter and Cassaday 1998

Answer 41

Gave participants an antihistamine tablet which has a mild sedative effect making the participant slightly drowsy( done to create a different physiological state from normal). Had to learn a list of words and passages. Then had to recall the information either in the same state or not 2 conditions the state was the same on learning and recall 2 conditions the state was different on learning and recall

Answer 42

Where the state of learning and recall was the same the recall rate was higher and when the state was different the recall rate was worse.

Answer 43

Huge amount of evidence to support retrieval failure. Eysenck 2010 has even argued that retrieval failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting. This shows that retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting has concurrent validity as findings have been replicated. Although context related cues appear not to have a very strong effect on forgetting,Baddeley still suggests they are worth paying attention to. For example when trying to remember something, it is probably worth making the effort to try and recall the environment where you first learned it. This principle is used in the cognitive interview, a method of getting eyewitness testimony. Support does have other applications to real life to other aspects of memory than forgetting.

Answer 44

Questioning of context effects Baddeley 1997 argues that context effects are usually not very strong,especially in real life . For example, it would be hard to find an environment as different as water is to land in real life. The real life application of retrieval failure due to contextual cues may not actually explain much forgetting. Limitation Recall versus recognition The context effect may be related gto the kind of memory being tested Godden and Baddeley 1980 Replicated the same experiment which they did with divers but using a recognition test not a recall test. When recognition was tested. There was not context dependent effect; performance was the same in all four conditions. Presence or absence of cues only affects memory when you test it in a certain way. Limitation Problems with the ESP Not testable and leads to a form of circular reasoning. In experiments where a cue produces a successful recall or word, we assume that the cue must have been encoded at the time of learning. If it doesn’t result in a successful recall, we assume that the cue was not encoded. There are just assumptions. We cannot know for sure if the memory had been taken in by the person. Limitation

Answer 45

Is the legal term that refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed. It will include identification of perpetrators, details of the crime scene.

Answer 46

Loftus and Palmer

Answer 47

Consisted of 45 american students, who were divided into five groups of nine All PPTs were asked to watch a video of a car crash and the asked a specific question about the speed of the cars They manipulated the verb used in the question Five different questions used How fast were the cars going when they hit each other How fast were the cars going when they bumped each other How fast were the cars going when they collided with each other How fast were the cars going when they contacted each other How fast were the cars going when they smashed

Answer 48

Average speed estimate for smashed was 40.5 mph and the average speed estimate for contacted was 31.8

Answer 49

Response bias factors The misleading information provided may have simply influenced the answer a person gave but didn’t change the question or lead to a false memory. The memory representation is actually altered The critical verb changes a person's perception of the accident. Some critical words would lead someone to have a perception of the accident being more serious. This perception is then stored in a person’s memory of the event. Post event discussion theory One source of misleading information comes from leading questions. However, misleading information in the real world can come from other sources, for example co witnesses, when they discuss the details of a crime or accident following an incident. This is known as a post event discussion

Answer 50

Gabbert et al 2003

Answer 51

Studied participant in pairs Each participant watched a video of the same crime, but from different perspectives-this meant each participant could see different elements in the event that others could not, for example,only one person could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman. The paired participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a recall test.

Answer 52

71% of PPT’s mistakenly recalled events that they did not see but picked up in the discussion In the control group 0% of the participants recalled information they didn’t pick up

Answer 53

Research into misleading information has important practical uses in the real world where the consequences of EWT can be serious. Loftus has argued that leading questions have such a distorting effect that police officers have to be wary of. Strength as research into this area has important uses.

Answer 54

Artificial tasks were used in loftus and palmers study where they watched video clips. This is very different to real life. In real life the effect on memory is very different because stress may be involved. Will limit how much we understand with leading questions due to the difference in the situation. LIMITATION LIMITATION Anastasi and Rhodes 2006 found that people in age groups 18-25 and 35-45 were more accurate than those ages 55-78. However all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of their own. Individual differences affect memory and they may affect the results. Demand characteristics Zaragosa and McCloskey 1989. Many answers that participants give are a result of demand characteristics. Participants don’t want to let the researchers down and be seen as attentive. Therefore not give the correct answers. Foster et al 1994 Point out that what you remember as an eyewitness can have some very important consequences in the real world, but the same isn’t true in research studies Thus, participants may not give the same answers than if they would have if the situation was real. This decreases the validity of the research. Must be wary of conclusions

Answer 55

Anxiety has a negative effect on recall

Answer 56

Johnson and Scott 1976

Answer 57

Led participants to believe they were going to take part in a lab study. While they were in a waiting room for the study they overheard a heated argument in the next room. In the low anxiety condition A man then walked through the waiting area with a pen and grease on his hands. In the high anxiety condition Heard the sounds of glass breaking and a man walked out holding a paper knife covered in blood. After this participants were asked to select the man they saw from a set of 50 different photos

Answer 58

In the low anxiety condition 49% of participants were able to select the right person In the high only 33% could accurately recall the right person

Answer 59

In a stressful situation,our attention narrows to focus on one aspect of a situation which is the most stressful.

Answer 60

Yuille and cutshall

Answer 61

interviewed witnesses after an attack in a canadian gun shop

Answer 62

Witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount of accuracy after 5 months. Some details were less accurate however such as recollection of colour of items and the age/height/weight estimates. Those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate 88% compared to 75% for the less stressed group

Answer 63

it is a law that states that recall is the best at moderate anxiety

Answer 64

There is research support by Johnson and scott 1976: suggesting that anxiety does reduce retrieval

Answer 65

The weapon focus effect may not be relevant Johnson and scot’s may test surprise rather than anxiety. They may have been focusing on the knife because they were surprised rather than anxious Pickel 1998 Conducted an experiment using scissors,a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken. eyewitness accuracy was poorer in the “high unusualness” situation (chicken or handgun).Suggests that the weapon focus is due to unusualness rather than anxiety. LIMITATION Research usually comes from field studies. This means that there is a lack of control .This means that there are possible extraneous variables(such as post event discussion and interviews) that may be responsible for the accuracy of the recall found. LIMITATION To create a high anxiety environment to see the results may be unethical as it may cause psychological harm which can be harming. Doesn’t challenge the results by it does question the need for such research LIMITATION The inverted U theory is too simplistic Very difficult to define and measure accurately. One reason for this is that it has many elements The inverted U explanation assumed only one of these, physiological arousal. LIMITATION Demand characteristics may have affected results. As lab studies filmed a usually staged crime most participants would be aware they are watching a filmed crime. This will lower the mundane realism as participants would pay attention to the videos more than they would. LIMITATION

Answer 66

that EWT could be improved if the police used better techniques when interviewing witnesses Everything should be based on psychological insights into how memory works and called these techniques collectively the cognitive interview

Answer 67

Report everything Reinstate the context Reverse the order Change perspective

Answer 68

Witnesses are encouraged to include every detail of the event. This is because seemingly trivial details may be important and,moreover, they may trigger other important memories.

Answer 69

The witness should return to the original crime scene “in their mind”, this means imagining the original environment .this is all relevant to context dependent forgetting

Answer 70

Events should be recalled in different chronological order from the original events. This is done to prevent people from reporting their expectations of what happened and create false memories. It prevents dishonesty because it is harder for someone to produce a false account if they have to reverse it.

Answer 71

Should recall the incident from other people's perspective. Is done to disrupt the effect of expectations and schema on recall.

Answer 72

developed some additional elements on the social aspects of the cognitive interview. It is important for the interviewer to know when to engage in eye contact. Includes ideas such as reducing witness anxiety,minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking open ended questions.

Answer 73

Milne and Bull 2002 Found that each technique by itself recalled more information than traditional methods, however, they also found that reinstate the context and report everything were the most effective combination of techniques. This shows that two of the four techniques can be sued effectively which improves credibility with the police. Meta-analysis from Kohnken et al 1999 from 50 studies found that ECI delivered consistently better than standard interviews. This suggests that the ECI can benefit police investigation and society

Answer 74

It is time consuming so the police may be reluctant and may not get better results than a standard test. Especially if there are many witnesses. This is because a rapport needs to be established and for witnesses to relax. Requires specialist training. There is a lack of standardisation. This is because studies into the CI all use slightly different enhanced CI techniques. This is also true to real life. This means that we cannot evaluate the effectiveness of the CI and police cannot waste the time and money on something which hasn’t been correctly evaluated Kohnken found that even though there was a 81% increase in accurate information there was a 61% increase in inaccurate information when using enhanced CI techniques. Can have huge implications in the real world.