memory

Question 1

what is memory?

Answer 1

the process in which information is encoded,stored and then retrieved.

Question 2

what are the types of memory?

Answer 2

sensory
all immediate information from sensors, only held onto shortly

long term
Permanent store where limitless amounts of information can be stored for long periods of time.

short term
Temporary memory store where small amounts of information can be kept for a brief period. Information can be easily lost

Question 3

what is the capacity of the short term memory

Answer 3

7+-2

Question 4

what study found the capacity of the short term memory

Answer 4

Jacobs 1887

Question 5

what was the procedure for Jacob’s study

Answer 5

Participants were presented with strings of letters or digits. Then they were asked to repeat them back in the same order. The length gradually increased consecutively. Until the participants couldn’t repeat the sequence accurately. When they failed on 50% of the trials they’ve reached their digit span capacity.

Question 6

what were the findings of Jacob’s study

Answer 6

On average participants recalled nine digits and seven letters. The average recall increase with age.

Question 7

what were the conclusion of Jacob’s study

Answer 7

STM has a limited storage capacity of between five and nine items, but learned memory techniques may increase capacity as they get older.

Question 8

what was the criticism of Jacob’s study

Answer 8

Since there are 26 letters in the alphabet but only ten digits, letters may be harder to recall.

Question 9

what is the duration of the short term memory

Answer 9

18-30 seconds

Question 10

what was the study which found the duration of the STM

Answer 10

Peterson and peterson

Question 11

what was the aim of Peterson and peterson’s study

Answer 11

Aim to see if rehearsal was necessary to hold information in the STM

Question 12

what was the procedure of Peterson and peterson’s

Answer 12

Method
PPTS given sets of 3 letters, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3’s out loud for up to 18 seconds in intervals of 3. This was done to prevent rehearsal. PPTs then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.

Question 13

what was the findings of Peterson and peterson’s study

Answer 13

results : participants had forgotten virtually all information after 18 seconds

Question 14

what was the conclusion of Peterson and peterson’s study

Answer 14

We cannot hold information in the STM store without rehearsal.

Question 15

what is the evaluation for Peterson and peterson’s study

Answer 15

Lacks mundane realism(con)
Lacks ecological validity (con)
May show demand characteristics(con)
Well controlled so can be easily replicated(pro)

Question 16

what is the capacity and the duration of the LTM?

Answer 16

duration can last all life
unlimited

Question 17

what was the study of the duration of the long term memory?

Answer 17

Bahrick et al

Question 18

what was the procedure and findings of Bahrick et al’s study

Answer 18

392 us high school graduates.remembered classmates names w/out pictures and with pictures
Up to 34 years of very strong results. Better with visual prompts
Dip in recall after 47 years could be duration or ageing.

Question 19

what was the evaluation for Bahrick et al’s study

Answer 19

Evaluation
Has ecological validity easily relevant to real life
May have not remembered as much as laboratory studies have lower retention ]
May lack temporal validity
Some things not controlled such as
If they saw their ex classmates regularly
They might look at yearbooks a lot in first few years but less as time goes by

Question 20

what is displacement

Answer 20

the first piece of information stored in the STM is the first to be replaced when maximum capacity is reached. If we don’t fill up our STM and we rehearse the information then it is moved into our LTM.

Question 21

what are the types of encoding

Answer 21

Acoustic coding: the sound of a stimulus
Visual coding: the psychical appearance of a stimulus
Semantic coding: the meaning of a stimulus.

Question 22

what is the study into encoding in the short term memory?

Answer 22

Baddeley 1966

Question 23

what was the procedure of Baddeley’s study into encoding in the short term memory?

Answer 23

PPTs shown random sequences of five words from one of four categories
Acoustically similar words
Acoustically dissimilar words
Semantically similar words(have similar meaning)
Semantically dissimilar words(have different meanings)
PPTs then asked to write down straight away.

Question 24

what were the findings of Baddeley’s study into encoding in the short term memory

Answer 24

Found that most had problems with acoustically similar words.

Question 25

what was the conclusion of Baddeley’s study into encoding in the short term memory?

Answer 25

Concluded STM encodes information acoustically.

Question 26

what was the procedure of Baddeley’s study into encodng in the long term memory and what did it find?

Answer 26

Modified experiment
Made the list ten words long,stopped rehearsal.each list four times and tested 20 minutes later .
Acoustic similarity wasn’t significantly different but semantic was
Concluded that LTM is mainly semantically encoded.

Question 27

who made the multistore memory model?

Answer 27

Atkinson and Shiffrin

Question 28

what are the stores in the multi store memory model?

Answer 28

sensory store/register
short term memory
long term memory

Question 29

what is the sensory register/store

Answer 29

Consists of the eyes, ears,nose,fingers,tongue and the corresponding areas of the brain. Two main stores of information: the Iconic memory which deals with visual information and the echoic store which deals with auditory information

Question 30

what are the processes in the multi store memory model?

Answer 30

Attention: on the information you pay attention to will pass from the SR to the STM. anything else will decay.

Maintenance rehearsal. STM occurs when we repeat information until it passes into our LTM. if not it decays.

Elaborate rehearsal: STM-LTM giving information meaning and deeper processing.

Retrieval: getting information back from LTM to STM, so it can be used.

Question 31

what are the strength’s of the multi store memory model?

Answer 31

Supported by research such as Baddeley’s experiment shows us that the information is coded acoustically in the short term memory but semantically in the Long term memory. So there are different stores.

Question 32

what are the limitation of the multi store memory model?

Answer 32

KF, an amnesia patient (Shallice and Warrington 1970) struggled with verbal memory but not visual memory. Which suggests that there is more than one store in STM.

According to the multi store model the amount of rehearsal is important, but Craik and Watkins 1973 found that this prediction is wrong because they found that elaborative rehearsal is more necessary than maintenance rehearsal.

Multi store model focuses too much on maintenance.
All the studies used to create the model store memory as they all used artificial materials and environment.

Also evidence to suggest that the LTM is not one store and that there are multiple aspects of the LTM. for example Clive Wearing.

Question 33

what are the types of long term memory?

Answer 33

Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory

Question 34

what did Tulving 1985 realise about atkinson and Schiffrin’s multi store model?

Answer 34

Was one of the first cognitive psychologists to realise that the multi-store model’s view of the LTM was too simplistic and inflexible.

Question 35

what is the episodic memory

Answer 35

Refers to the ability to recall events from our own lives. Personally links to you.
They are time stamped (you remember when they happen)
Will include several elements in the format of the memory
Consciously recalled. May recalled quickly but still needs to have a conscious effort to be recalled

Question 36

what is the semantic memory

Answer 36

Refers to memories that relate to knowledge of the world.
Likened to a combination of an encyclopaedia and a dictionary.
Not time stamped
Less personal and more facts we all share

Question 37

what is the procedural memory

Answer 37

Refers to our memory for actions skills
Can recall without conscious awareness
Good example is driving a car- this skill depends on procedural memory
These are the sorts of skills we might find difficult to explain to someone else
Has to be specific eg experienced drivers

Question 38

who was the working memory model proposed by?

Answer 38

Baddeley and Hitch 1974

Question 39

what is the working memory model

Answer 39

The working memory model(WMM is a model that explains how the STM works.
It suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub-units coordinated by a central decision making system (a computer which can place information into lots of separate areas to deal with)
The WMM is concerned with the part of the mind is active when we are temporarily storing and manipulation inform for the environment

Question 40

what is the central executive and what is it’s role

Answer 40

The central executives role is to organise where memories go to and where they are stored. It is the main control.
Is an attentional process that monitors incoming data. It will allocate the correct slave system to take that memory.
Has a limited processing capacity. Cannot hold data for long from the senses.

Question 41

what is the phonological loop and it’s role?

Answer 41

One of the slave systems (limited capacity)
Main role is to process auditory information and it preserves the order in which the information arrives.

Articulatory control system:
Allows for maintenance rehearsal. The capacity of this loop is believed to be 2 seconds. (inner voice.

Phonological store:
Is a subdivision of the phonological loop which stores the words you hear.(inner ear)

Question 42

what is the visiuospatial sketchpad and it’s role?

Answer 42

Another slave system and It processes visual or spatial information when required. The capacity is limited to about 3-4 objects.
Visual cache
Stores visual data
Inner scribe
Records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.

Question 43

what is the episodic buffer and what is it’s role

Answer 43

storage component of the central executive.
It is a temporary store for information, it integrates the visual,spatial and verbal information processes by the other stores. Takes excess information from the central executive and allows us to switch from visuo-spatial to auditory and it links working memory to long term memory. Limited capacity of approximately 4 chunks.

Question 44

what are the strengths of the wroking memory

Answer 44

Shallice and Warrington 1970
Did a case study on KF who had suffered brain damage. After the damage KF had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information. This supports the existence of a separate visual and acoustic store.

Baddeley conducted dual performance and found that participants found it more difficult doing two visual tasks and then a verbal and a visual task. This is because there is competition in the stores when they are both visual but not when one is verbal and the other is visual. Supports the idea that there are two separate stores

Baddeley demonstrated that it is more difficult to remember a list of long words compared to a list of short words. There is finite space for rehearsal for about 2 seconds.This disappears if a person is given an articulatory suppression task(a repetitive task which suppresses the articulatory process) research support for a key component.

Brain scanning studies support the WMM
Braver et al 1997 gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive when they were having a brain scan. Greater activity in the left prefrontal cortex.the activity increased as the difficulty of the task did . Scientific evidence supports a key aspect of the working memory model.

Question 45

what are the limitations of the working memory model

Answer 45

Cognitive psychologists suggest that this component is unsatisfactory and doesn’t really explain any of the mechanisms. Baddeley himself recognised that “the central executive is the most important but least understood component of the working memory”. This is limited as it hasn’t been fully explained which undermines the validity of the model as a whole.

Question 46

what are the explanations of forgetting

Answer 46

Interference theory
The theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with one another and ends up disrupting each other which leads to forgetting Baddeley 1999

Retrieval failure Tulving
The theory that forgetting is due to retrieval failure where there isn’t enough cues to access the memory.

Question 47

what are the different types of interference

Answer 47

Retroactive memory interference
Recent information hinders the recall of older information

Proactive interference
Past information hinders the recall of new information

Question 48

what are the studies into interference

Answer 48

Underwood and postman 1960
Mcgeoch and Mcdonald 1931
Baddeley and Hitch 1977

Question 49

what was the aim of underwood and postman?

Answer 49

Aim does new learning interferes with previous

Question 50

what was the procedure of Underwood and Postman?

Answer 50

PTTS were divided into two groups. Group a were asked to learn a list of word pairs. They were then asked to learn a second list of word pairs where the second word pair was different. Group B only were asked to recall the first list.

Question 51

what was the findings and conclusion of Underwood and Postman’s study?

Answer 51

Result
Group B recall was better than the recall of group A
Conclusion
This suggests that learning the items in the second lsit interfered with the PPTS ability to recall the first list. This is an example of Retroactive interference.

Question 52

what was Macgeoch and Mcdonald’s study?

Answer 52

Studied retroactive interference by varying the amount of similarity between sets of word lists presented to participants

Question 53

what was the procedure of Macgeoch and Mcdonald’s study?

Answer 53

Procedure
All PPTS had a learn a word list of 10 words to 100% accuracy.
Then split into six groups and each group was required to learn a new list.
Each group had to learn one of the six word lists below:
Synonyms
Antonyms
Unrelated words go list 1
Nonsense syllables
Three digit numbers
No new list

Question 54

what was the findings and conclusion of Macgeoch and Macdonald’s study?

Answer 54

The most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall. Showing that interference is strong when memories are similar
Those who had learned synonyms in the secondly list were significantly impaired down to 12%

Conclusion
Similar information is more likely to be interfered with.

Question 55

what was Baddeley and Hitch’s study?

Answer 55

Asked rugby players to recall the names of teams they recently played. However, not all players had played every match

Question 56

what was the findings of Baddeley and Hitch’s study

Answer 56

therefore their recall would be better than those who had played every match. This provides evidence of retroactive interference of forgetting

Question 57

what was the strengths of interference theory on memory

Answer 57

All lab experiments for interference can be seen as research support and they all found the same thing suggests that the theory has a high level of validity. SUPPORT

There are real life studies for example Baddeley and Hitch 1977. In this study they asked rugby players whether they knew team names. Found out that their recall was better if they played less matches. Has high ecological validity

Question 58

what was the weaknesses of interference theory on memory

Answer 58

The stimulus materials used in most studies are word lists. Artificial material will be lacking ecological validity and it will make interference more likely. LIMITATION.

Time periods are relatively short. Thai means that a participant may have to learn one list of words and learn a second list 20 minutes later and then recall one of them a few minutes later. Doesn’t reflect how things are learnt and questions the validity of experiments investigating interference. LIMITATIon

Interference effects may be overcome by learning using cues. Comes from Tulving and Psotka 1971 gave partici[pants lists of 24 words into six categories. Categories were not explicit but it was presumed that they would be obvious. Recall was about 70% for the first word but this fell as they were given each list. When they were given a cued recall test recall came up to 70%. LIMITATION

Question 59

what are the types of cue dependent forgetting?

Answer 59

Two types of cue dependent forgetting
Context
The situation (external environment)

State
Your physical state (internal cues)

Question 60

what is the encoding specificity principle

Answer 60

states that memory is improved when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval

Question 61

what is the main study into context depdnent forgetting?

Answer 61

Godden Baddeley

Question 62

what was the procedure of Godden and Baddeley’s study?

Answer 62

asked divers to learn a list of words either underwater or on land. They were then asked to recall the words either in the same place they had learnt the list or in the opposite place
The four conditions
Learn on land recall on land
Learn on land recall underwater
Learn underwater recall underwater
Learn underwater recall on land

Question 63

what was the findings of Godden and Baddeley’s study?

Answer 63

Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching conditions because the external cues were different from the ones art recall and this led to retrieval failure

Question 64

what was the study into state dependent forgetting?

Answer 64

Carter and Cassaday 1998

Question 65

what is the procedure of Carter and Cassaday’s study?

Answer 65

Gave participants an antihistamine tablet which has a mild sedative effect making the participant slightly drowsy( done to create a different physiological state from normal).
Had to learn a list of words and passages. Then had to recall the information either in the same state or not
2 conditions the state was the same on learning and recall
2 conditions the state was different on learning and recall

Question 66

what was the findings of Carter and Cassaday’s study?

Answer 66

Where the state of learning and recall was the same the recall rate was higher and when the state was different the recall rate was worse.

Question 67

what is the strengths of retrieval failure as a theory of forgetting?

Answer 67

Huge amount of evidence to support retrieval failure. Eysenck 2010 has even argued that retrieval failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting. This shows that retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting has concurrent validity as findings have been replicated.

Although context related cues appear not to have a very strong effect on forgetting,Baddeley still suggests they are worth paying attention to. For example when trying to remember something, it is probably worth making the effort to try and recall the environment where you first learned it. This principle is used in the cognitive interview, a method of getting eyewitness testimony. Support does have other applications to real life to other aspects of memory than forgetting.

Question 68

what are the weaknesses of retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting?

Answer 68

Questioning of context effects
Baddeley 1997 argues that context effects are usually not very strong,especially in real life .
For example, it would be hard to find an environment as different as water is to land in real life. The real life application of retrieval failure due to contextual cues may not actually explain much forgetting. Limitation

Recall versus recognition
The context effect may be related gto the kind of memory being tested
Godden and Baddeley 1980
Replicated the same experiment which they did with divers but using a recognition test not a recall test. When recognition was tested. There was not context dependent effect; performance was the same in all four conditions. Presence or absence of cues only affects memory when you test it in a certain way. Limitation

Problems with the ESP
Not testable and leads to a form of circular reasoning. In experiments where a cue produces a successful recall or word, we assume that the cue must have been encoded at the time of learning. If it doesn’t result in a successful recall, we assume that the cue was not encoded. There are just assumptions. We cannot know for sure if the memory had been taken in by the person. Limitation

Question 69

what is eyewitness testimony?

Answer 69

Is the legal term that refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed. It will include identification of perpetrators, details of the crime scene.

Question 70

what was the study into eyewitnesses?

Answer 70

Loftus and Palmer

Question 71

what is the procedure Loftus and Palmer’s study

Answer 71

Consisted of 45 american students, who were divided into five groups of nine
All PPTs were asked to watch a video of a car crash and the asked a specific question about the speed of the cars
They manipulated the verb used in the question

Five different questions used
How fast were the cars going when they hit each other
How fast were the cars going when they bumped each other
How fast were the cars going when they collided with each other
How fast were the cars going when they contacted each other
How fast were the cars going when they smashed

Question 72

what were the findings of Loftus and Palmer’s study?

Answer 72

Average speed estimate for smashed was 40.5 mph and the average speed estimate for contacted was 31.8

Question 73

what is explanations of misleading eyewitness tesimony?

Answer 73

Response bias factors
The misleading information provided may have simply influenced the answer a person gave but didn’t change the question or lead to a false memory.

The memory representation is actually altered
The critical verb changes a person’s perception of the accident. Some critical words would lead someone to have a perception of the accident being more serious. This perception is then stored in a person’s memory of the event.

Post event discussion theory
One source of misleading information comes from leading questions. However, misleading information in the real world can come from other sources, for example co witnesses, when they discuss the details of a crime or accident following an incident. This is known as a post event discussion

Question 74

what is the study into post event discussion?

Answer 74

Gabbert et al 2003

Question 75

what was the procedure of Gabbert’s study into post event discussion?

Answer 75

Studied participant in pairs
Each participant watched a video of the same crime, but from different perspectives-this meant each participant could see different elements in the event that others could not, for example,only one person could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
The paired participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a recall test.

Question 76

what were the findings of Gabbert’s study?

Answer 76

71% of PPT’s mistakenly recalled events that they did not see but picked up in the discussion
In the control group 0% of the participants recalled information they didn’t pick up

Question 77

what is the strengths of theories into eyewitness tesimony?

Answer 77

Research into misleading information has important practical uses in the real world where the consequences of EWT can be serious. Loftus has argued that leading questions have such a distorting effect that police officers have to be wary of. Strength as research into this area has important uses.

Question 78

what are the weaknesses of theories into eyewitness tesimony?

Answer 78

Artificial tasks were used in loftus and palmers study where they watched video clips. This is very different to real life. In real life the effect on memory is very different because stress may be involved. Will limit how much we understand with leading questions due to the difference in the situation. LIMITATION

LIMITATION
Anastasi and Rhodes 2006 found that people in age groups 18-25 and 35-45 were more accurate than those ages 55-78. However all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of their own. Individual differences affect memory and they may affect the results.

Demand characteristics
Zaragosa and McCloskey 1989. Many answers that participants give are a result of demand characteristics. Participants don’t want to let the researchers down and be seen as attentive. Therefore not give the correct answers.

Foster et al 1994
Point out that what you remember as an eyewitness can have some very important consequences in the real world, but the same isn’t true in research studies

Thus, participants may not give the same answers than if they would have if the situation was real. This decreases the validity of the research. Must be wary of conclusions

Question 79

what are the effects of anxiety on eye witness tesimony

Answer 79

Anxiety has a negative effect on recall

Question 80

who found that anxiety has a negative effect on recall?

Answer 80

Johnson and Scott 1976

Question 81

what were the procedure of Johnson and Scott’s study

Answer 81

Led participants to believe they were going to take part in a lab study. While they were in a waiting room for the study they overheard a heated argument in the next room.

In the low anxiety condition
A man then walked through the waiting area with a pen and grease on his hands.

In the high anxiety condition
Heard the sounds of glass breaking and a man walked out holding a paper knife covered in blood.

After this participants were asked to select the man they saw from a set of 50 different photos

Question 82

what were the findings of Johnson and Scott’s study?

Answer 82

In the low anxiety condition 49% of participants were able to select the right person
In the high only 33% could accurately recall the right person

Question 83

what is the weapon’s focus effect?

Answer 83

In a stressful situation,our attention narrows to focus on one aspect of a situation which is the most stressful.

Question 84

what study looked into the weapon focus effect?

Answer 84

Yuille and cutshall

Question 85

what was the procedure of Yullie and Cutshall

Answer 85

interviewed witnesses after an attack in a canadian gun shop

Question 86

what were the findings of Yullie and Cutshall’s study?

Answer 86

Witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount of accuracy after 5 months.
Some details were less accurate however such as recollection of colour of items and the age/height/weight estimates.

Those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate 88% compared to 75% for the less stressed group

Question 87

what is the Yerkes Dodson law 1908

Answer 87

it is a law that states that recall is the best at moderate anxiety

Question 88

what are the advantages of research into the effect of anxiety on recall?

Answer 88

There is research support by Johnson and scott 1976: suggesting that anxiety does reduce retrieval

Question 89

what are the disadvantages of research into the effect of anxiety on recall

Answer 89

The weapon focus effect may not be relevant
Johnson and scot’s may test surprise rather than anxiety. They may have been focusing on the knife because they were surprised rather than anxious

Pickel 1998
Conducted an experiment using scissors,a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken. eyewitness accuracy was poorer in the “high unusualness” situation (chicken or handgun).Suggests that the weapon focus is due to unusualness rather than anxiety.
LIMITATION

Research usually comes from field studies. This means that there is a lack of control .This means that there are possible extraneous variables(such as post event discussion and interviews) that may be responsible for the accuracy of the recall found.
LIMITATION

To create a high anxiety environment to see the results may be unethical as it may cause psychological harm which can be harming. Doesn’t challenge the results by it does question the need for such research
LIMITATION

The inverted U theory is too simplistic
Very difficult to define and measure accurately. One reason for this is that it has many elements
The inverted U explanation assumed only one of these, physiological arousal.
LIMITATION

Demand characteristics may have affected results. As lab studies filmed a usually staged crime most participants would be aware they are watching a filmed crime. This will lower the mundane realism as participants would pay attention to the videos more than they would.
LIMITATION

Question 90

what do Fisher and Gieselmen argue?

Answer 90

that EWT could be improved if the police used better techniques when interviewing witnesses
Everything should be based on psychological insights into how memory works and called these techniques collectively the cognitive interview

Question 91

what are the stages of the cognitive interview?

Answer 91

Report everything
Reinstate the context
Reverse the order
Change perspective

Question 92

what does the report everything stage of the cognitive interview involve

Answer 92

Witnesses are encouraged to include every detail of the event. This is because seemingly trivial details may be important and,moreover, they may trigger other important memories.

Question 93

what does the reinstate the context stage of the cognitive interview involve

Answer 93

The witness should return to the original crime scene “in their mind”, this means imagining the original environment .this is all relevant to context dependent forgetting

Question 94

what does the reverse the order stage of the cognitive interview involve

Answer 94

Events should be recalled in different chronological order from the original events. This is done to prevent people from reporting their expectations of what happened and create false memories. It prevents dishonesty because it is harder for someone to produce a false account if they have to reverse it.

Question 95

what does the change the perspective stage of the cognitive interview involve?

Answer 95

Should recall the incident from other people’s perspective. Is done to disrupt the effect of expectations and schema on recall.

Question 96

what did the enhanced cognitive interview do?

Answer 96

developed some additional elements on the social aspects of the cognitive interview. It is important for the interviewer to know when to engage in eye contact. Includes ideas such as reducing witness anxiety,minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking open ended questions.

Question 97

what are the strengths of the cogntiive interview?

Answer 97

Milne and Bull 2002
Found that each technique by itself recalled more information than traditional methods, however, they also found that reinstate the context and report everything were the most effective combination of techniques. This shows that two of the four techniques can be sued effectively which improves credibility with the police.

Meta-analysis from Kohnken et al 1999 from 50 studies found that ECI delivered consistently better than standard interviews. This suggests that the ECI can benefit police investigation and society

Question 98

what are the weaknesses of the cognitive interview?

Answer 98

It is time consuming so the police may be reluctant and may not get better results than a standard test. Especially if there are many witnesses. This is because a rapport needs to be established and for witnesses to relax. Requires specialist training.

There is a lack of standardisation. This is because studies into the CI all use slightly different enhanced CI techniques. This is also true to real life. This means that we cannot evaluate the effectiveness of the CI and police cannot waste the time and money on something which hasn’t been correctly evaluated

Kohnken found that even though there was a 81% increase in accurate information there was a 61% increase in inaccurate information when using enhanced CI techniques. Can have huge implications in the real world.