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forensic psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

what did Lombroso suggest criminals were?

A

genetic throwbacks

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2
Q

what did Lombroso say offenders were seen as?

A

lacking evolutionary development. their savage and untamed ature made it impossible to adjust to the demands of society

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3
Q

how could these throwbacks be identified?

A

by physiological markers

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4
Q

how did Lombroso research the throwbacks?

A

by examining the facial and cranial features of hundreds of Italian convicts

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5
Q

how many covicts did Lombroso examine?

A

383 dead criminals and 3839 alive criminals

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6
Q

what was the basic argument of eugenics?

A

that not all people were born equal. Those groups with a genetic advantage should be allowed to breed for the good of society , whilst those without should be eliminated

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7
Q

what is the advantages of atavistic theory (Lombroso’s theory)?

A

Is credited as shifting the emphasis in crime research away from a moralistic discourse towards a more scientific and credible realm

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8
Q

what are the disadvantages of atavistic theory (Lombroso’s theory?

A

Could be seen as a racist theory because atavistic traits were similar to those who are non european DeLisi 2012 specific to people of African descent

Goring 1913 after comparing 3000 criminals with 3000 non criminals, concluded that there is no evidence of facial characteristics being distinct to criminal groups. He did uphold the view that criminals generally have a below average intelligence level

Causation is an issue because atavistic form didn’t necessarily cause something but it only correlates. Other factors weren’t considered

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9
Q

what do genetic explanations propose?

A

that offending behaviour is inherited as one or more genes predispose people to commit crimes

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10
Q

what do neural explanations of criminality focus on?

A

on areas of the brain and nervous system, and the brain structure.

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11
Q

what twin studies focus on criminality?

A

Lange’s study
Christiansen’s study

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12
Q

what happened in Lange’s study?

A

Looked at 13 MZ twins and 17 DZ twins where one of the twins in each pair had served time in prison
Found that 10 MZ twins but only 2 DZ twins had a co twin who was also in prison and concluded that genetic factors must play a predominant part in offending behaviour

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13
Q

what happened in Christiansen’s study?

A

Studied 87 MZ and 147 pairs and found a concordance rate of 33% for MZ and 12 for DZ

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14
Q

what was Tiihonen’s study and what did it find?

A

genetic analysis of around 900 finnish offenders
found a abnormality in the MAOA gene and the CDH13 gene

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15
Q

what is the MAOA gene?

A

a gene that controls dopamine and serotonin in the brain and linked to aggressive behaviour

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16
Q

what is the CDH13 gene?

A

a gene that has been linked to substance abuse and ADD

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17
Q

what does the diathesis stress model state?

A

A tendency towards criminal behaviour is likely to come about via the combination of a genetic predisposition and environmental trigger

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18
Q

what is antisocial personality disorder(APD) associated with?

A

reduced emotional responses, a lack of empathy for the feeling of others, and is a condition that characterises many convicted criminals.

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19
Q

what did the research by Adrian Raine find?

A

individuals with APD had reduced activity in the PFC (prefrontal cortext) which regulates emotional control.
found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in the PFC of people with APD compared to control group.

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20
Q

what did Keyser et al find?

A

found that when criminals were asked to empathise with a person depicted on film as experiencing pain did their empathy reaction (control by mirror neurons in the brain) activate.

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21
Q

what does findings by Keyser et al suggest?

A

This suggests that individuals with APD are not totally without empathy but may have a neural switch that can be turned on and off, unlike the “normal” brain that has the empathy switch permanently on.

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22
Q

what is the evaluation for genetic and neural explanations to crime?

A

Cause and effect cannot be established in any human studies all rely on correlation to other

Many studies link genes with anti-social personality disorder and/or substance abuse but not necessarily with offending

Biological determinism erasing implications of accepting that offending is due to biological function
Reductionism need to look at wide factors such as social context,substance abuse, mental illness, upbringing

Comparison with social psychological explanation eg social learning theory limited by other explanations.

Research support twin studies and studies of candidate genes.

Is scientific

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23
Q

what are the cognitive explanations of criminality

A

Kohlberg’s morality theory
minimalisation
cognitive distortions

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24
Q

what is Kohlberg’s morality theory

A

argues that there are 3 levels of morality
preconventional
conventional
post conventional

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25
Q

what is the preconventional level of morality?

A

this is the level of morality which is where a person will behave in a way which will result in the most amount of reward and the least amount of punishment

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26
Q

what is the conventional level of morality?

A

this is the level of morality where a person obeys the law to uphold the laws of society

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27
Q

what is the post conventional level of morality?

A

is a level of morality with 2 sub sections these are:
Morality of contract and individual rigths
Rules are obeyed if they are impartial; democratic rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others

Morality of conscience
The individual establishes his or her own rules in accordance with a personal set of ethical principles

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28
Q

what study supports Kohlberg’s morality theory?

A

The Heinz Dilemma 72 boys aged 10-16. 58 of whom were followed up at three yearly intervals for 20 years
Had a 2 hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. Reasons tended to change as the children got older

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29
Q

what are cognitive distortions?

A

Are errors or biases in people’s information processing system characterised by faulty thinking

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30
Q

what is an example of cognitive distortions?

A

hostile attribution bias
when someone misinterprets people’s behaviour

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31
Q

what is minimalisation

A

Is an attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence aka a “euphemistic label” for behaviour (bandura, 1973).

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32
Q

what studies show minimalisation is present in sex offenders

A

Bombaree 1991 found of 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied committing an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim

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33
Q

what are the evaluation points for cognitive explanations

A

opposing research from Gibbs who suggests that Kohlberg has western bias in his research
Palmer and Hollin is a supporting point because it found that the offenders showed less mature moral reasoning

Thornton and Reid (1982): pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associate with crimes such as robbery, whereas impulsive crimes such as assault did not pertain to any type of reasoning. Pre-conventional reasoning tended to be evident in crimes where the offender thought they might have had a good chance at evading punishment. is a supporting point

Understanding the nature of cognitive distortions has proven beneficial in the treatment of criminal behaviour e.g. CBT that encourages sex offenders to face up to what they have done.

Studies suggest that the reduction in cognitive distortions such as denial and minimalisation is highly correlated with reduced recidivism (reoffending).
Cognitive explanations are useful when predicting reoffending but they do not give us much insight into why the crime was committed in the first place.

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34
Q

what is differential association theory

A

Individuals learn the values, attitudes and techniques and motives for offending behaviour via interaction with others- these others are different from one person to the next (hence, differential association). Ignores the effects of class or ethnic background, what matters is do you associate with.

35
Q

what is the two factors affecting offending

A

Learned attitudes towards offending
Learning of specific offending acts

36
Q

what is the research from farrington et al

A

Was a longitudinal survey of 411 males.
Began when they were 8
All working class. Findings describe careers up to 50 years old, both official convictions and self reports.
41% of at least one offence between 10 and 50 years old. The average conviction lasted from age 18 to 28 and included five convictions. Most important risk factors at age 8 to 10 for later offending were measures of family criminality, daring or ristaking, low school attainment, poverty and poor parenting
7% of participants were defined as chronic offenders because they account for all official recorded offences in this study.

37
Q

what are the strengths of differential association theory

A

One of the strengths of differential association theory is it’s ability to account for crime within all sectors of society.
Move emphasis away from biological theory.

Differential association theory draws attention to the fact that dysfunctional social circumstances and environments may be more to blame for criminality than dysfunction people . more realistic solution to problem instead of eugenics or punishment

Mednick et al found that boys who ha criminal adoptive parents and non cirminal biological parents were more likely to go on and offend than boys who’s criminal and non-criminal

38
Q

what are the weaknesses of differential association theory

A

Suffers from being difficult to test. Similarly the theory is built on the assumption that ofeening behaviour occurs when pro criminal values outweigh anti criminal. However, without being able to measure these, it is difficult to know point the urge to offend is relaised. Undermini

Individual differences
There is a danger that stereotyping can occur especially if people are from impoverished, crime-ridden. Theory suggests that exposure to pro-criminal v values is sufficient to produce offending in those who are exposed and ignores that not everyone who is exposed goes to commit crime.

39
Q

what are the two psychodynamic explanations

A

Blackburn’s idea of the inadequate superego
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory (only psychodynamic when relating to crime)

40
Q

what is the inadequate superego

A

Superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage of psychosexual development when the child resolves the oedipus complex.
The superego operates on the morality principle.

41
Q

what did Blackburn 1993 argue

A

If the superego is deficient or inadequate then criminal behaviour is inevitable because the id is given “free reign” and not properly controlled.
Three types of superego are proposed to explain criminality
The weak superego
If the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, the child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego as there is no opportunity for identification- this would make immoral or criminal behaviour more likely.

42
Q

what is the deviant superego

A

If the superego that the child internalises has immoral or deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour. For example, a boy that is raised by a criminal father is likely not to associate guilt with wrong-doing.

43
Q

what is the over harsh super ego

A

,an excessively punitive or overly harsh superego means the individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety.this may (unconsciously) drive the individual to perform criminal acts to satisfy the need for punishment

44
Q

what is the advantages of psychodynamic theory

A

Children who are raised by deviant parents go on to commit crime themselves. This could be due to the influence of genetics or socialisation.

45
Q

what is the disadvantages of psychodynamic theory

A

There is very little evidence that children raised without a same sex parent are less law-abiding as adults (or fail to develop a conscience).

Bowlby’s 44 thieves study has been heavily criticised due to researcher bias and for his failure to draw a distinction between deprivation and privation.

An implicit assumption within Freudian theory is the idea that girls develop a weaker superego than boys, as they do not experience castration anxiety. Due to girls being under less pressure to identify with their mothers, their sense of morality is not fully realised.
Lewis (1954) analysed data drawn from interviews with 500 young people and found that maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending.

The psychodynamic explanations focus on many unconscious concepts that are not open to empirical testing.

46
Q

what is custodial sentencing

A

Involves a convicted offender spending time in prison or another closed institution such as young offender’s institute or psychiatric hospital

47
Q

what are the two types of deterrence

A

General deterrence
Sends a broad message to members of a society that crime is not tolerated

Individual deterrence
Prevents individuals from repeating the same crime due to experience

48
Q

what is incapcitation

A

Offender taken out of society to prevent reoffending. Likely to depend upon the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender. Society will need more protection from a murderer than a tax evader.

49
Q

what is retribution

A

Another aim is to enact revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer, the level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime. . Based on the biblical notion of an “eye for an eye”. See prison as the best possible option in this sense and alternative to prison are often criticised as soft options

50
Q

what is rehabilitation

A

Many would see the main objective of prison as not being purely to punish, but to reform. When released they should be well adjusted. Should provide opportunities to develop skills and training or to access treatment programmes for drug addiction, as well as give the offender to reflect on their crime.

51
Q

what are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A

Stress and depression: suicide rates are considerably higher in prison than in the general population, as are incident of self-mutilation and selfharm.The stress also increases the risk of psychological disturbance following release.

52
Q

what is prisonisation

A

the way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting an “inmate code”. Behaviour that may be unacceptable on the outside may be rewarded inside the walls of the institution.

53
Q

what are the statistics on reoffending?

A

norway 7% reoffending
Britain 57% of offenders will reoffend in a year and 70% recidivism rate.

54
Q

what are some examples of alternative prisons?

A

Austrian minimum security prison. Prisoners get their own room, with a tv and en suite given more responsibility and comfort

Bastoy prison norway
On an island minimum security. Prisoners can cycle around and there is a low guard to prisoner ratio reoffending rates are 16% to a European average of 70%.

55
Q

what are the strengths of custodial sentencing

A

Many prisoners access education and training whilst in prison, increasing the possibility that they can become better people and find employment
Treatment programmes offered such as anger management schemes and social skills training that give offender insight into their behaviour, reducing the likelihood of recidivism

56
Q

what are the weaknesses of custodial sentencing?

A

People become worse during their time in prison
May give younger inmates an opportunity to learn how to commit crimes. May undermine rehabilitation attempts.

Raymond 2000
Reviewed custodial sentencing and concluded that prison does little to deter or rehabilitate offenders, alternative to custodial sentencing such as community service and restorative justice.

Prisons can lead to psychosis suicide rates are 15 times higher than the general population. Most at risk are single men during first 24 hours of confinement Bartol

The prison reform trust found that 25% of women and 15% of men in prison reported symptoms indicative of psychosis. Oppressive prison regime may trigger psychological disorders in those who are vulnerable

Prison doesn’t work for everyone
Not all offenders react to prisoner the same way. There are variations in experience. We cannot assume prison works the same way for everyone. Some may even prefer prison to life on the outside so will reoffend to get back in

57
Q

what is the aim of behaviour modification?

A

reinforcing obedient behaviour in offenders, whilst punishing disobedience in the hope that the form continues, the latter dies out. This is made possible by a token economy system, which can be managed and co-ordinated by prison staff, and is something that all inmates in an institution would be required to adhere to.

58
Q

what are token economy systems?

A

Based on classical conditioning. Involves reinforcing desirable behaviours with a token.

59
Q

what will desirable behaviours may include avoiding conflict?

A

Desirable behaviours may include avoiding conflict. Often given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour. Tokens are secondary reinforcers as they derive their value from their association with a reward. Has to be emphasised that disobedience may result in tokens and privileges being withheld .

60
Q

what did Hobbs and Holt do?

A

introduced a token economy programme with groups of young delinquents. They observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to the non token economy group. Allyon et al 1979 found a similar effect on adult offenders

61
Q

what is the evaluation for token economies

A

Cohen and Filipczak
Token economy groups showed more desirable behaviour than control groups. After 2 years, the token economy groups were less likely to have reoffended. However, after 3 years, recidivism rates went back to reflecting national statistics.
Only looks at the short term.

Moya and Achtenburg 1974
Not given the option over whether they participate in the token economy. Withdrawal of privileges such as exercise or phone calls to loved ones may also be ethically questionable.

Blackburn 1993
Token economies have little rehabilitative value as positive changes will be lost when released. Progress is unlikely to be assured upon release since law-abiding behaviour is not rewarded/reinforced on the outside. Rewards the offender receives from breaking the law (such as group status) may be more powerful than abiding by the token economy’s lack of application.

Field 2004
The rewards and frequency of the rewards has to be tailored to the individual offender. Field found that in a youth offender setting, prisoners responded more positively when rewards were more immediate and more frequent.

basset t and Blanchard
There is no need for expertise or specialist professionals as behavioural modification can be administered by anyone in any institution meaning they are cost effective. Strength
However, there is the risk that benefits can be lost if staff are inconsistent due to factors such as lack of appropriate training.

62
Q

what did Novaco 1975 say?

A

Cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts. In some people, anger is quick to surface, especially in situations that are perceived to be anxiety inducing or threatening.

63
Q

what is the first stage of anger management

A

Cognitive preparation

64
Q

what is the second stage of anger management

A

Skill acquisition

65
Q

what is the third stage of anger managment

A

application practise

66
Q

what is cognitive preparation?

A

Requires the offender to reflect on past experiences and consider the typical pattern fo their anger. The offender learns situations which act as a trigger to anger and , if the way in which the offender interprets the event is irrational, the therapist’s role is to make this clear. In redefining the situation as non-threatening, the therapist is attempting to break what may well be an automatic response for the offender.

67
Q

what is skill aquisition?

A

Introduced techniques and skills to deal with anger provoking situations more rational and effective.
Techniques may be cognitive: positive self talk to encourage calmness; behavioural assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively. physiological methods of relaxation and /or mediation. The latter particularly promotes the idea that it is possible for the offender to be in control of their emotions rather than ruled by them.

68
Q

what is application practice

A

Given the opportunity to practise their skills within a carefully monitored environment. This is likely to involve the offender and the therapist re-enacting scenarios that may have escalated to acts of violence. This requires a certain amount of commitment from the offender. Must see the scenario as real. Successful negotiation of the role play would be met with positive reinforcement from the therapist

69
Q

what are the evaluation for anger management?

A

Research support ireland
Compared the progress of 2 groups/
12 sessions
Outcomes assessed using 3 measures: interview,behavioural checklist and a self report questionnaire
92% of the experimental group showed an improve on at least one measure, 485 showed improvement on the checklist and report. Limited due to assessment methodology

Includes cognitive preparation in order to identify the precursors to anger and applies a behavioural approach to develop self management techniques. This should equip them for the outside
A social approach is adopted when offenders are required to demonstrate what they have learnt

Blackburn anger management may have a noticeable effect on the conduct of offenders in prisons there is little evidence that it reduces recidivism in the long term
Is in a artificial environment

Loza and Loza-Fanous 1999 used a range of psychometric measures and found no real difference in anger levels of violent and non-violent offenders. Agner doesn’t link to crime. Anger management may be misguided as they could provide offenders with a justification for their behaviour.

Anger management programmes require the services of a highly trained specialist who are used to dealing with violent offenders time consuming and cost. Furthermore, it requires commitment and engagement from the offender

May not be ethically right to anger the offender.

70
Q

what is the aim of restorative justice?

A

Aim for offenders to recognise the consequences of their actions. About directly resolving the problems caused by the offender

71
Q

what do restorative justice programmes aim to do?

A

Programmes aim to help rebuild relationships between the offender,the victim, their family and the community at large. Attempt to improve the experience for the victim, as well as to allow the offender to take responsibility for their crimes.

72
Q

what are the emphasis of restorative justice programmes?

A

on the survivors (victims)

73
Q

what is restorative justice the process of?

A

managed collaboration between offender and victim based on the related principles of healing and empowerment.

74
Q

what happens during a restorative justice meet?

A

A supervised meeting between the two parties is organised – attended by a trained mediator – in which the victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the incident affected them.

75
Q

what does restorative justice focus on?

A

acceptance of responsibility and positive change for people who harm others; less emphasis on punishment.

76
Q

how does a restorative justice meet up occur and what are they like?

A

Not restricted to courtrooms; survivors (the term ‘victim’ is avoided) and those responsible for the harm may voluntarily choose to meet face-to-face in a non-courtroom setting. Other relevant community members may also have a role in the process.

Active rather than passive involvement of all parties in the process wherever
possible.

77
Q

what are the variations of restorative justice?

A

can function as an
alternative to prison (especially if the offender is
young), as an ‘add-on’ to community to service or as an
incentive which may lead to the reduction of an existing
sentence.

78
Q

what is the independent body which monitors restorative justice?

A

restorative justice council

79
Q

what is the restorative justice council RJC and what is its role?

A

is an independent body whose role it
is to establish clear standards for the use of restorative justice and to
support victims and specialist professionals in the field.

80
Q

what does the RJC advocate for?

A

the use of restorative practice in preventing and managing conflict in many areas including schools, children’s services, workplaces, hospitals and communities – as well as
prison.

81
Q

what are the pros of restorative justice

A

One of the strengths of restorative justice is that – unlike custodial sentencing, which tends to adopt a ‘one size fits all’ approach.

In RJ, there is flexibility in the programmes that can be administered, and the term itself covers a wide range of possible applications (including schools and hospitals).

A 7-year government funded research project conducted by Shapland et al.
(2007) concluded that every £1 spent on restorative justice would save the
criminal justice system £8 through reduced reoffending (though other estimates
are much more conservative than this).

However, as a result of the issues highlighted above, the meeting between
offender and victim may be an emotionally charged affair requiring the input of
a skilled and experienced individual to act as a mediator.

82
Q

what are the cons of restorative justice?

A

The success of RJ programmes may hinge upon the extent to which the offender feels remorse for their actions. However, there is a danger that some offenders may ‘sign up’ for the scheme to avoid prison, or for the promise of a reduced sentence, rather than a genuine willingness to want to make amends to the victim.

The victim themselves may also have an ulterior motive – to seek revenge or
retribution of their own.

Specialist professionals who are trained in these matters are likely to be
expensive and few.

In addition, restorative justice programmes often suffer from high dropout rates
as offender or victim may ‘lose their nerve’ prior to the scheduled meeting and
withdraw from the scheme.

Despite the enthusiastic uptake of restorative justice programmes in many parts
of the world, there is a growing number of feminist commentators who take issue
with its widespread use.

Women’s aid have called for a legislative ban on the use of restorative justice in
domestic violence cases.

Their concerns relate to the power imbalance between the abuser and the
abused, and the fact that wider community, who should be offering support, often
resorts to blaming the victim.

LIMITATION – This suggests

Despite the fact that restorative justice may
reduce rates of recidivism and might prove
to be much cheaper than running and staffing
overcrowded prisons, alternatives to
custodial sentencing tend not to receive
much public support.

LIMITATION – Public opinion may be against restorative justice, as it may be seen as
‘getting off lightly’.

They are often regarded as soft options, and
these sentiments tend to be echoed by
politicians, keen to convince the electorate
they are ‘tough on crime’ (David &
Raymond, 2000).

83
Q
A

psychology (10 decks)

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