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Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Outline baddeley’s research into coding

A

1966
Gave participants 1 of 4 word lists
1. Acoustically similar
2. Acoustically dissimilar
3. Semantically similar
4. Semantically dissimilar
Asked to recall these lists either soon after (STM) or after a period of time (LTM)

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2
Q

Outline the findings of Baddeley’s research into coding

A

STM - worse recall with acoustically similar words
LTM - worse recall with semantically similar words

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3
Q

2 evaluation points for research on coding

A

Evidence for separate memory stores
Artificial stimuli

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4
Q

How does Baddeleys research show there is two separate memory stores?

A

Research identified clear differences between LTM and STM .
Some research shows exceptions.
But main idea is that LTM = semantic
STM = acoustic
Important step in understanding memory

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5
Q

Why is the use of artificial stimuli in Baddeleys research on coding a weakness?

A

Doesn’t use meaningful material
Lists had no personal meaning to participants
May not tell us about coding in real life
So application is limited

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6
Q

Outline the procedure and findings of the digit span test

A

Jacobs (1887)
Gave ppt 4 digit number , added a number after each recall until they failed.
Mean for digits = 9.3
Mean for letters = 7.3

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7
Q

Outline what Miller said about capacity of memory?

A

Noted things come in 7s (eg days of the week)
Capacity for STM is 7+-2
Chunking occurs - 5 words is as easy as 5 letters

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8
Q

2 evaluation points for research on capacity

A

Valid study - replicable
Not so many chunks as suggested

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9
Q

Why is Jacob’s study being replicated a strength?

A

Old studies (1887) often lack control of variables so confounding variables may affect the results .
But replicated with same results in 2005 by Bopp and Verhaeghen
Shows it is a valid test

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10
Q

What did Cowan say about Millers theory of chunking ?

A

Miller may have overestimated the capacity of STM
Cowan reviewed memory research and concluded STM capacity may be more like 4+-1 chunks
Lower end of his proposal correct

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11
Q

Outline STM research on duration

A

Peterson and Peterson (1959)- 24 students 8 trials
Given trigrams and 3 digit number
Had to count down from this number until told to stop and recall
To stop maintenance rehearsal)
Told to stop after 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds

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12
Q

Findings of research into the duration of STM

A

Accuracy only 3% after 18 seconds
Therefore LTM duration is 18 seconds

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13
Q

Outline research into the duration of LTM

A

Bahrick (1975)
392 Americans ( ages 17-77)
Looked at high school year books
Tested recall and recognition

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14
Q

Outline findings of research into duration of LTM

A

Some participants still remembered class mates 48 years later. Shows LTM is potentially life long.

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15
Q

2 evaluation points for research on duration

A

Meaningless stimuli
High external validity

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16
Q

What is a weakness of Peterson and Peterson research ?

A

Meaningless stimuli
Stimulus (trigrams) artificial
Not meaningful
Doesn’t reflect everyday life
Lacks external validity

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17
Q

What is a strength of Bahrick’s research ?

A

High external validity
Investigated meaningful memories
Shepard (1967) found with meaningless stimuli LTM duration lower
Bahrick findings reflect real estimate of duration of LTM

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18
Q

Multi store model of memory

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968,1971)
Stimulus => sensory register => attention=>STM=>LTM

retrieved from STM by response
Prolonged rehearsal transfers info into LTM
LTM to LTM via retrieval
Maintenance rehearsal = saying word over and over

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19
Q

Outline the sensory register

A

Modality specific (e.g iconic- visual)
Sperling (1960) found SR duration very short (1/2 second)
Very large capacity
Transferred to LTM via attention

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20
Q

4 evaluation points for multi store model of memory

A

Research support
Artificial stimuli
More than 1 STM
Elaborative rehearsal

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21
Q

How does Baddeleys research support MSMM?

A

Shows two separate stores as they are coded differently
Shows independent stores

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22
Q

How does research into memory often lack external validity and why is this a bad thing ?

A

Uses artificial stimuli
Eg P + P trigrams , Jacobs - letters / numbers , Baddeley - random words
Doesn’t reflect how memory works in every day life.

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23
Q

What is the clinical evidence that shows more than 1 STM store?

A

Shallice and Warrington (1970) studied KF ( patient with amnesia)
When words read aloud to him = bad recall
When he reads words = better recall
Shows MSMM is wrong in claiming that there is only one STM store

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24
Q

What is meant by elaborative rehearsal ?

A

Craik and Watkins suggested that the amount of rehearsal isn’t the only way of transferring information from STM to LTM .
Rehearsal focusing on meaning and linking back is more effective
Shows MSMM doesn’t show all the ways LTM storage can be achieved

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25
Q

What are the 3 types of LTM?

A

Episodic
Semantic
Episodic

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26
Q

Who proposed the types of LTM and when?

A

Tulving (1985)

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27
Q

Outline episodic LTM

A

Episodes from our lives (eg graduation)
Time stamped
Combination of elements ( senses )
Conscious effort to recall

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28
Q

Outline semantic LTM

A

Shared knowledge of world and knowledge of concepts
Not time stamped
Less vulnerable to distortion

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29
Q

Outline procedural LTM

A

Memory for actions or skills ( driving )
Hard to explain without task being more difficult

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30
Q

4 evaluation points for types of LTM

A

Clinical evidence
Lack of control over variables
Real world application
Conflicting neuroimaging evidence

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31
Q

What is the clinical evidence for types of LTM ?

A

Case studies like HM and Clive Wearing ( brain damage / infections )

Semantic memories relatively unaffected . Procedural still intact ( eg walking and talking ) Episodic severely damaged.

Shows one store can be damaged and others functioning

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32
Q

What is bad about using HM and Clive wearing as evidence for the types of LTM ?

A

Lack of control
Difficulting isolating variables and damage
No knowledge of them before
Limits how far we can apply the findings to LTM

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33
Q

How can the types of LTM be applied to real world ?

A

Allows psychologists to help people with memory issues
As people age they struggle with episodic memory
Belleville targeted episodic memory via intervention to present memory loss
Useful in developing treatments

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34
Q

How does neuroimaging evidence about types of LTM conflict eachother ?

A

1 - semantic left prefrontal
- episodic right prefrontal

2 - left prefrontal to episodic encoding
- Right prefrontal to episodic retrieval

Challenges neurophysiological evidence as poor agreement on location of memory

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35
Q

What are the parts of the working memory model ?

A

Central executive
Visuo spatial sketch pad
Phonological loop
Episodic buffer

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36
Q

Outline role of central executive

A

Supervisory
Allocates subsystems
Very limited capacity

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37
Q

Outline the visuo spatial sketch pad

A

Capacity 3-4 objects , codes visually
Stores visual and spatial info
Visual cache- store
Inner scribe- spatial arrangement

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38
Q

Outline episodic buffer

A

Added in 2000
Integrates data from subsystems and records order
Storage component of CE
Flexible coding

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39
Q

Outline phonological loop

A

Auditory info that is acoustically coded
Phonological store - words you hear ( 2 seconds of spoken words )
Articulatory process- allows maintenance rehearsal by repeating words in loop

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40
Q

4 evaluation points of working memory model

A

Clinical evidence
Other factors?
Dual task performance
Lack of clarity over nature of CE

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41
Q

How does KF provide support for WWM?

A

Clinical evidence
Poor STM for auditory info
Intact STM for visual info
Phonological loop damaged , visuospatial Sketchpad intact
Shows separate acoustic and visual stores

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42
Q

What is bad about using clinical evidence for support for working memory model ?

A

Other factors could affect it
Trauma from motorbike accident may have affected cognitive performance quite apart from brain injury
Unclear if there was any other cognitive impairments
Challenges evidence from clinical studies

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43
Q

How does Dual task Performance support the working memory model ?

A

Baddeley 1975
Visual + verbal task at same time. Performance similar to when they were doing separately
When both visual or verbal , performance on both declined

Shows separate subsystem that process visual input and verbal processing

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44
Q

Why is there lack of clarity over role of central executive and why is this bad?

A

Baddeley said most it was important but least understood part of WMM.
More clarity then attention
May have its own sub component
CE unsatisfactory part of WMM and challenged overall integrity

45
Q

What is retrieval failure ?

A

When we don’t have necessary cues.
Memory is available just not accessible .

46
Q

What is encoding specificity principle ?

A

Tulving reviewed retrieval failure research , found pattern.
Cues most affective when present at coding and retrieval
Can be meaningful eg mnemonic techniques or meaningless state

47
Q

Outline the procedure of research on context dependent cues ?

A

Godden and Baddeley (1975) deep sea divers
Learn words in 4 conditions , learn on land , recall in sea ETC

48
Q

What are the findings of research in context dependent cues?

A

When conditions match better recall .
40% lower when unmatched

49
Q

Outline research into state dependent cues

A

Carter and Cassidy (1998)
Antihistime with mildly sedative effect
4 conditions like Baddeley

50
Q

Outline the findings of research into state dependent cues?

A

Recall significantly worse when unmatched

51
Q

4 evaluation points for retrieval failure

A

Research support
Context has to be very efficient
Real world application
Recall vs recognition

52
Q

What is the research support for retrieval failure ?

A

Impressive range that suggest retrieval failure occurs in the absence of cues
Eysenck and Keane suggest it is main reason for LTM forgetting
Shows it occurs IRL and in highly controlled lab conditions

53
Q

What did Baddeley suggest about context cues and retrieval failure ?

A

That context cues aren’t very strong in real life as contexts have to be very diffferent eg on land and in water

54
Q

How can retrieval failure be applied to real life situations?

A

Even though they can be weak, they can be useful to be mindful of as they can aid recall

55
Q

What were the findings of when recognition was tested instead of recall in the context cue research?

A

Context effects depend substantially on what type of memory being tested
Godden and Baddeley (1980) replicated experiments with a recognition test
No context dependent effect when recognition tested so limited explanation for forgetting

56
Q

What is interference?

A

When new or old information effects new or old information from being recalled

57
Q

What are the types of interference ?

A

Proactive
Retroactive

58
Q

What is retroactive interference ?

A

When new memories disrupt the recall of old memories

59
Q

What is proactive interference ?

A

When old memories disrupt the formation of new memories

60
Q

How does similarity affect interference ?

A

The more similarity there is between old new material , the more interference occurs

61
Q

Outline McGeoch and McDonald’s research into interference ?

A

Learn one list then learn 1 of 6 lists
1.synonyms
2.antonyms
3.unrelated words
4.consonant syllables
5. Digit
6. No list (control )

62
Q

Outline McGeoch and McDonald’s findings for their research into interference

A

When lists were most similar, recall was the worst

63
Q

Explain the effect of similarity on interference

A

Proactive interference- previous list makes new similar info harder to remember

Retroactive interference- new info overwrites similar memories

64
Q

4 evaluation points for interference

A

Real world interference
Conditions are rare
Interference and cues
Support from drug studies

65
Q

How has interference been shown to occur in real life ?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1977)
Asked Rugby players to recall team names across season
All had same interval ( one season )
But number of intervening games changed (injury)
Most games = most interference
Real world = > external validity

66
Q

What is the counterpoint for research that shows real life interference?

A

That in every day life these conditions are rare
Unlike lab studies which have high control of manipulating variables
Similarity in real life is unusual
So better explained by retrieval failure

67
Q

How is interference affected by cues?

A

Tulving and Psotka (1971)
Given words in categories - recall 70% and worse with additional lists added
Cued recall tested with category names - recall rose back to 70%
This shows interference has a temporary affect and this wasn’t predicted by the original theory

68
Q

How do drug studies provide support for interference?

A

Coenen and Van Luijtelaar
Gave participants words to recall either
1) taking diazepam before/during learning
2) taking diazepam after learning

When list learned before taking drug , better recall as drug prevents new info from being remember so no retroactive interference
= retrograde facilitation

69
Q

Who proposed the cognitive interview and what did they suggest?

A

Fisher and Geiselman (1992)
Suggested EWT should be improved via psychological insights into memory

70
Q

What are the 4 stages of the cognitive interview ?

A

Report everything
Reinstate context
Reverse order
Change perspective

71
Q

Describe the report everything stage of CI

A

report even seemingly unimportant details
Could be important
Or trigger memories

72
Q

Describe the reinstate context stage of CI

A

Picture crime scene in mind
Imagine environment ( weather or feelings)
This is to avoid context dependent forgetting

73
Q

Describe the reverse order stage of CI

A

Recall from end and work backwards
Disrupts expectations and schemas
Harder to lie

74
Q

Describe the change perspective stage of CI

A

Put your self in shoes of some one else present
Disrupts schema so less expectation

75
Q

What is the enhanced CI?

A

Fisher et al. (1987) added elements to CI which focused on social dynamics such as eye contact, tone and types of questions asked.

76
Q

What is the support for the effectiveness of the CI ?

A

Köknken et al. 1999
Meta analysis of 55 studies comparing CI and enhanced CI with standard police interviews.
Average 41% increase in accurate info
Only 4 studies showed no difference
Shows CI is effective in helping witnesses remember

77
Q

What is a weakness of the research support for the effectiveness of CI?

A

Köknken also found an increase inaccurate information
Especially in the enhanced CI
CI sacrificed the quality of EWT in favour of quantity

Treat evidence with caution

78
Q

What elements of CI which are more useful ?

A

Milne and Bull 2002
Report everything and reinstate context create better recall then the other stages
Casts doubt on overall credibility of CI

79
Q

How is CI time consuming?

A

Police officers are reluctant to use CI as takes more time and specialist training
Time to establish rapport
Not enough resources
So not realistic to implement

80
Q

What is the research that suggests anxiety has a negative effect on recall?

A

Focus on weapon leads us to pay less attention to other events

Johnson and Scott 1976

81
Q

Outline the procedure of Johnson and Scott’s research into anxiety and EWT

A

Participants thought they were in lab study
Low anxiety condition: heard men talking and then man walked past with pen and greasy hands
High anxiety condition : heard heated argument and sound of breaking glass then man walked past with bloody knife

82
Q

Outline the findings of Johnson and Scott’s research into anxiety and EWT

A

Low anxiety condition - 49% picked correct man out from 50
High anxiety condition - 33% picked correct man out from 50 because of tunnel theory

83
Q

What is the research that suggests anxiety has a positive effect on EWT?

A

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

84
Q

Outline the procedure of Yuille and Cutshals research into anxiety ?

A

Study of an actual shooting in Vancouver where wonder shot thief dead
21 witnesses 13 in study
Interviewed 4-5 months after and this was compared to original police interview
Reported stress levels and emotional problems since the shooting

85
Q

What are the findings of Yuille and Cutshal research ?

A

All accounts were very accurate
Those who reported the most stress had most accurate recall
Less stressed participants = 75%
More stressed participants = 88%

86
Q

What explains the contradiction between the research that suggests anxiety has both positive and negative effects?

A

Yerkes Dodson inverted U
Low stress = bad performance
Medium stress = good performance
High stress = bad performance

87
Q

What research supports the Yerkes Dodson Law ?

A

Deffenbacher 1983 -> reviewed 21 studies EWT and found contradictory findings that support the Yerkes Dodson law .

88
Q

4 evaluation points for factors affecting EWT - anxiety

A

Unusualness not anxiety
Support for negative effects
Support for positive affects
Lack of control

89
Q

Why can the affect of anxiety be argued to be actually the affect of unusualness?

A

Focus on weapon may be due to surprise not fear
Pickel (1998) - showed participant video in hand salon wit scissors , hand gun , chicken , wallet
Scissors= high anxiety , low unusualness
Chicken= low anxiety, high unusualness
Recall of details from video with chicken significantly worse
So Nothing to do with anxiety

90
Q

What is the research support for the negative affects of anxiety on EWT?

A

Valentine and mesout
London dungeon
Used objective measure (heart rate) to divide participants to high and low anxiety groups
Low anxiety = good recall
High anxiety = poor recall
Anxiety clearly affected participants ability to recall details about the actor

91
Q

What is the research that supports anxiety has positive affects on EWT?

A

Christianson and hübinette
Interview 58 witnesses to actual bank robbery in Sweden
Staff ( assumed to be involved directly ) consider to have most anxiety compared to witnesses

75% accurate across all involved
Most anxiety (direct victims) more accurate

92
Q

What is a weakness of the research that suggests anxiety has positive affects on EWT? (Christianson and hübinette)

A

The participants were interviewed several months after the event
Psychologists had no control over post event discussion or other factors
Negative affects of anxiety overwhelmed by over factors
Lack of control over extraneous variables invalidates support

93
Q

What is a misleading question?

A

Questions that lead you into saying a particular answer

94
Q

Outline the procedure of research into leading questions

A

Loftus and Palmer (1974)
45 students watch film of car accidents then completed questionnaire
Critical question = how fast were the cars going when they <verb>
Verb = hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed</verb>

95
Q

What were the findings of Loftus and Palmers research ?

A

Contacted= 31.8mph
Smashed= 40.5 mph

96
Q

What are the two explanations for Loftus and palmers findings ?

A

Response bias
Substitution explanation

97
Q

What is response bias in research into leading questions ?

A

Only simply changing how they answer the question
Not memory

98
Q

What is the substitution explanation in research into misleading questions and EWT? What research shows this?

A

When memory is changed
Loftus and Palmer (1974) 2nd experiment
Smashed = more likely to report smashed glass later then hit
Changed memory of event

99
Q

What is post event discussion?

A

Discuss memory and experience with others

100
Q

Outline the procedure of research into post event discussion

A

Gabbert et al (2003)-
in pairs participants watched video of the same crime but from a different point of view
They discussed and then had a recall test .

101
Q

What are the findings of research into post event discussion?

A

71% of participants reported aspects they didn’t see ( picked up in discussion) . 0 % in control group .

102
Q

What is memory conformity ?

A

Responding for social approval

103
Q

What is memory contamination ?

A

When information from others is mixed into their memories

104
Q

What is the real world application for research into misleading information?

A

Has practical use in criminal justice
Inaccurate EWT has serious consequences
Loftus (1975) believe leading questions have big affect so police need to take care in their language
Can be used to explain weaknesses of EWT to juries

Psychology can improve legal systems

105
Q

How can the practical application of EWT be affected by research issues?

A

Loftus and Palmers participants watched films in labs
Very different to real life
Foster et al. Pointed out the lack of consequences

May have been two pessimistic about the effects misleading information has on EWT.

106
Q

What is the evidence against the substitution explanation for why leading questions have an affect?

A

Only accurate for some aspects of memory
Sutherland and Hayne showed ppt a video clip and asked misleading questions
Recall was still accurate for central but not peripheral details

So central aspects are resistant to misleading information

107
Q

What is the evidence against the memory conformity explanation for why post event discussions have an affect?

A

Skagerberg and Wright 2008
Clip of mugging ( 1 participant saw light brown hair , other saw dark brain hair. Then discussed what they saw.
Didn’t report what the other said but instead reported a blend of both ( medium brown)
Suggests contamination takes place not conformity

108
Q

4 evaluation points for misleading information

A

Real world application
Affected by research issues
Evidence against substitution
Evidence challenging memory conformity

Psychology P1 (8 decks)

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