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1
Q

define reciprocity

A

both CG and baby respond to eachothers signals, both eliciting a response from one another

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2
Q

what is an alert phase during reciprocity and what is an example of this?

A

periodic phases when baby signals they are ready for interaction (e.g eye contact)

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3
Q

How often do mothers pick up on these alert phases?

A

2/3 of the time ( Feildman and Eidelman )

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4
Q

What is meant by active involvement in reciprocity?

A

both baby and CG are involved

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5
Q

Define interactional synchrony

A

CG and baby reflect both the actions and emotions of eachother and do this in a synchronised way

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6
Q

When does synchrony begin?

A

2 weeks old (Meltzoff and Moore)

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7
Q

Who and how proved interactional synchrony is important for attachment ?

A

Isabella et al. (1989) - 30 mothers and babies , assessed degree of synchrony. High levels of synchrony associated with good quality attachment.

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8
Q

How is filmed observations a strength of research into CG infant interactions?

A

No observers- covert,
less demand characteristics ,
watched later - less chance of missing phenomena ,
inter rater reliability can be established.

GOOD RELIABILITY + VALIDITY

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9
Q

Why is having difficulty observing babies a weakness of research into CG infant interactions?

A

Hard to interpret babies behaviour as they lack coordination and are relatively immobile ( passing wind or smiling )
Is behaviour random or triggered?

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10
Q

Why is research into CG infant interactions not showing its developmental importance a weakness?

A

Observation ≠ meaning
Feldman (2012) - said interactional synchrony only gives names to patterns of behaviour, doesn’t tell us its purpose

Observational research alone is not sufficient

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11
Q

Why could it be argued that CG infant interactions are important for attachment ?

A

Isabella et al. (1989)
Achievement of IS predicted good quality attachment

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12
Q

Outline Schaffer and Emerson’s research.

A

(1964) - 60 Glaswegian babies from working class babies
Asked mothers questions about babies protest to 7 everyday situations
To measure attachment

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13
Q

Outline the asocial stage

A

Few weeks old
Same behaviour to humans and objects
Preference for familiar people

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14
Q

Outline indiscriminate stage

A

2-7 months
obvious preference for humans
Any humans can cuddle / provide comfort
No stranger or separation anxiety

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15
Q

Outline specific attachment stage

A

From 7 months
Stranger and separation anxiety
Specific attachment to primary attachment figure ( 65% mothers)

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16
Q

Outline multiple attachment stage

A

Shortly after specific attachments formed
Form secondary attachments form
(29% of babies form these 1 month after specific attachment)

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17
Q

How does Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) research have good external validity?

A

Observations by parents so less demand characteristics and anxiety
So more natural behaviour

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18
Q

4 evaluation points for CG interactions

A

Filmed observations
Difficulty observing babies
No developmental importance
Counter- Isabella et al.

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19
Q

What is the issue with using mothers as observers ? (Schaffer and Emerson (1964)

A

Unlikely to be objective
Social desirability bias
Behaviours not noticed or misremembered
Not recorded accurately

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20
Q

Why is the evidence for asocial stage poor?

A

Young babies have poor coordination so many just appear asocial when they might be social but not be able to express this in a observable way

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21
Q

How can Schaffer’s stages of attachment be useful for real world application ?

A

When to put babies in nursery
Asocial and indiscriminate okay but may be problematic after 7 months (in specific and multiple stage)

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22
Q

How many fathers are the primary attachment figure?

A

3% sole attachment
29% joint attachment with mother
(Schaffer and Emerson 1964)

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23
Q

Who did research into the distinct role of a father? Outline this research

A

Grossmann et al. (2002)
Longitudinal study following babies into teens
Found fathers have role of play and stimulation and mothers - emotional development

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24
Q

What is said about fathers as the primary attachment figure ?

A

Field (1978) - primary CG mothers and fathers showed similar level of interaction.
Primary CG fathers show more interactions with baby than secondary CG fathers .
Shows they can have the emotion focused role

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25
Q

What is confusing about the question ‘what is the role of the father’ ?

A

Some answer it as fathers as secondary attachments , some as distinct role , some as primary attachment.
Means question is too vague and over simplified

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26
Q

How can research into the role of the father be applied to real life?

A

To give advice for parents
Less pressure on mother to stay at home as fathers can do role
Less pressure on fathers to return to work if they want to stay at home

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27
Q

How does evidence on role of the father conflict eachother?

A

Varies according to methodology used
Longitudinal ( Grossmann ) found father has distinct role. However …
McCallum and Golombok found that lesbian and single parent babies develop same attachment without a father figure
Question of distinct role still unanswered

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28
Q

How might research into the role of the father not actually be conflicting?

A

Lesbian and single parents may just adapt to fulfil role - e.g doing both roles or taking 1 role each
Fathers tend to have distinct role but in the absence of a father, others can adapt

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29
Q

4 evaluation points for role of the father

A

Confusion over research question
Real world application
Conflicting evidence
Not actually conflicting

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30
Q

Outline Lorenz’s procedure

A

Randomly divided clutch of goose eggs
Half with mother goose ,half hatched in incubator with Lorenz .

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31
Q

Outline Lorenz findings

A

Control group follow mother
Experimental group follow Lorenz
Critical period of a few hours

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32
Q

What is meant by sexual imprinting? With example

A

Courtship behaviour / preference to who you imprint on
For example, peacock raised with reptiles showed courtship to tortoises

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33
Q

Why is Lorenz study not generalisable to humans?

A

Extrapolation
Humans more physiologically and psychologically complex
E.g attachment is two way process in mammals

So not appropriate to apply to humans

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34
Q

What is the research that supports Lorenz ?

A

Chicks exposed to shape patterns
Followed the shape they were exposed to
Shows innate mechanism to imprint on first moving object / animal / person

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35
Q

2 evaluations for Lorenz

A

Generalisability to humans
Research support

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36
Q

Outline Harlows procedure

A

16 baby rhesus monkeys
In cage with wire monkey and cloth monkey
In one group wire monkey gave milk and in the other cloth monkey gave milk

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37
Q

What was the findings of Harlows study?

A

Monkeys preferred cloth monkey even if wire monkey have food
Went to cloth monkey when scared for comfort

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38
Q

What happened to Harlows maternally deprived monkeys when they were adults ?

A

Permanent affect and severe consequences
More aggressive , less sociable
Unskilled at mating
Killed there children

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39
Q

What did Harlow find the critical period for monkeys to be?

A

90 days

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40
Q

How does Harlows research have real world application ?

A

For social workers and psychologists to screen children and see that lack of bonding is a risk factor for poor outcomes and bad mental health
Research is theoretical and practical

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41
Q

What is the issue with generalisability in Harlows study?

A

Better than birds
But human brain is still much more complex then monkey brains

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42
Q

2 evaluation points for Harlow

A

Real world application
Generalisability to humans

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43
Q

How did Bowlby propose attachment behaviour is evolutionary ?

A

As attachment is innate and gives survival advantage so is more likely to be passed onto next generation

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44
Q

What is a social releaser with examples?

A

A signal that the baby wants social interaction and to make adult want attachment with a baby.
For example , cooing and gripping

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45
Q

When is the critical period according to Bowlby?

A

6 months - 2 years

46
Q

What is monotropy ?

A

Attachment to one person is different to any one else

47
Q

What did Bowlby say attachment should be?

A

consistent and continuous

48
Q

What is the internal working model ?

A

Internal representation of attachment , is the model for later attachments

49
Q

What research questions the validity of monotropy?

A

Schaffer and Emerson found that 29% or babies form joint first attachments
They found first attachment is just stronger, not different
As secondary attachments have same qualities ( safe base )

50
Q

What is the support for social releasers existing ?

A

Evidence cute behaviours elicit reaction from CG
Brazelton et al (1975) babies triggered interactions by social releasers
Caregivers told to ignore and babies became increasingly more distressed and some even curled up and lay motionless
Shows the role of social releasers

51
Q

What is the support for the internal working model?

A

Patterns of attachment passed onto next generation
Bailey (2007) found mothers with poor attachment to their mothers have babies who are poorly attached to them

52
Q

What is a weakness of the internal working model?

A

It is reductionist
Doesn’t take into account genetic differences in anxiety level
Doesn’t take into account parenting style
Doesn’t take into account all factors

53
Q

How does learning theory suggest attachment is made ?

A

Operant conditioning and classical conditioning

54
Q

How is the baby positively reinforced during attachment

A

Baby cries ,
Is fed ,
Crying behaviour is more likely to be repeated

55
Q

How is the CG negatively reinforced ?

A

Baby cries ,
CG feeds baby to stop crying ,

56
Q

Who proposed learning theory ?

A

Dollard and miller

57
Q

How does classical conditioning cause attachment

A

Mother and feeling of being fed ( pleasure ) associated with eachother

58
Q

What is meant by mutual reinforcement in learning theory ?

A

Both CG and baby reinforced , strengthening the attachment

59
Q

What is the primary drive in learning theory ? Why?

A

Hunger as its innate

60
Q

What is the secondary drive in learning theory ? Why?

A

Attachment, as it becomes associated with the babies need for food

61
Q

How do animal studies show counter evidence for learning theory?

A

Lorenz - geese attach/imprint- no food involved
Harlow - monkeys preferred cloth mother even if wire mother gave food

Shows other factors are more important

62
Q

How do you human studies provide counter evidence for learning theory ?

A

Schaffer and Emerson found babies form main attachment to mother more commonly regardless of who feeds them
Isabella et al found synchrony predicts good attachment
Food is not main factor

63
Q

How could some conditioning be involved in attachment ?

A

Baby may associate mother with comfort or warmth
This may be classically conditions
So still may be some what valid in explaining / understanding babies attachment

64
Q

Why is it bad that the learning theory explanation suggests that the baby has a passive role ?

A

Feldman and Eidelmen show babies have a very active role even as young as 2 weeks

Conditioning ≠ adequate explanation

65
Q

4 evaluation points for learning theory explanation for attachment

A

Counter evidence from human studies
Counter evidence from animal studies
Some conditioning involved
Suggests baby has passive role

66
Q

Outline the procedure of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A

Controlled covert observation
7 episodes lasting 3 minutes each

67
Q

What are the 7 episodes of Ainsworths strange situation?

A

Baby encouraged to explore, stranger comes in, caregiver leaves , caregiver returns and stranger leaves , stranger returns, caregiver returns

68
Q

What behaviours is the strange situation testing?

A

Exploration and secure base behaviour
Stranger and separation anxiety
Reunion behaviour

69
Q

What are the 3 types of attachment as found from the strange situation?

A

Secure (B)
Insecure avoidant ( A)
Insecure resistant (C)

70
Q

What are the characteristics of type A attachment ?

A

Explore freely but no secure base or proximity seeking behaviour
No reaction when CG leaves
Reunion avoided

71
Q

What are the characteristics of type B attachment ?

A

Proximity seeking and secure base behaviour
Moderate separation and stranger anxiety
Accept comfort on reunion

72
Q

What are the characteristics of type C attachment ?

A

More proximity seeking and explore less.
High stranger and separation anxiety
Resist comfort on reunion

73
Q

What are the percentages for each attachment type for British babies ?

A

Secure - 60-75%
Insecure avoidant - 20-25%
Insecure resistant - ≈ 3%

74
Q

How does the strange situation have good predictive validity?

A

Outcome predicts aspects of babies later development
Type B: less bullying involvement,
better achievement , better mental health
Finds something real and meaningful for future

75
Q

What does Kagan 1982 say about what the strange situation is testing?

A

Says it is testing genetically influenced anxiety levels that account for the variations in attachment behaviour
Can also explain why attachment type reflects future behaviour
Therefore does it actually measure attachment?

76
Q

How does the strange situation have good reliability ?

A

Good inter rater reliability
Bick (2012) found agreement of 94%
Is controlled and focuses on clearly observable behaviours
Can be confident attachment type assessed is objective

77
Q

How is strange situation culturally bound ?

A

Not valid in different cultural context as babies have different experiences
Takahashi found higher type C proportion in Japan as mother and baby rarely separated
Can’t be applied in other countries

78
Q

4 evaluation points for types of attachment

A

Good predictive validity
Is it attachment
Good reliability
Culturally bound

79
Q

Outline Van Ijendoorn and Kroonenbergs research

A

Meta analysis of 32 strange situation studies from 8 countries
1190 children in total

80
Q

What were the findings of Van Ijendoorn and Kroonenbergs research?

A

Secure attachment majority in all countries (75% in UK , 50% in China)
Individualistic cultures - type c always under 14%
Collectivist cultures - type C above 14%
More variation in countries then between countries

81
Q

Outline Simonelli (2014) strange situation

A

Italy
Type B - 50%
Type A - 36%
As mothers work long hours

82
Q

Outline Jin et al (2014) strange situation

A

Korean
Insecure + secure proportions similar
But less avoidant
Similar to Japan as similar child rearing practices

83
Q

What can we conclude about the cross cultural replications of strange situation ?

A

Secure attachment is the norm in all cultures which supports Bowlby’s idea that attachment is innate
Cultural practices do have an influence

84
Q

Briefly outline Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A

There are emotional and intellectual consequences of separation between child and mother

85
Q

What’s the difference between separation and deprivation?

A

Separation only an issue when child’s emotional care is missing = deprivation
Extended separations = deprivation

86
Q

What is the critical period for maternal deprivation?

A

Up to 2.5 years but risk until 5
If deprivation occurs here, damage is inevitable

87
Q

What are the effects of maternal deprivation ?

A

Low IQ - Goldfarb (1974) lower IQ when from institutions
Abnormal emotional development- affectionless psychopathy meaning no fulfilling relationships and more criminality as lack of remorse

88
Q

Outline Bowlby’s research on the 44 juvenile thieves ?

A

44 criminal teenagers accused of stealing
Family interviewed
Control group = teenagers who aren’t criminal but disturbed emotionally

89
Q

Outline the findings of the research into juvenile thieves ?

A

14/44 thieves affectionless psychopaths
12/14 maternally deprived
5/ remaining 30 had separation
2/44 in control group had separations

90
Q

What is the difference between deprivation and privation and how is this a weakness of the juvenile thief research ?

A

Rutter (1981) - deprivation = loss of attachment , privation = attachment not formed e.g in an institution.
Thieves prived not deprived
So Bowlby overestimated seriousness of affects from deprivation

91
Q

How could the critical period actually be a sensitive period?

A

As quality aftercare after deprivation can undo damage
For example , the Czech twins ( abused from 2-7) then had excellent care and recovered fully
Therefore sensitive not critical

92
Q

How is Bowlby’s evidence flawed ?

A

Bowlby carried out the interviewed so researcher bias
Goldfarb research on IQ affected by confounding variables such as poor conditions and trauma
So serious flaws effect validity

93
Q

What research supports Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A

New evidence from Levi et al shows effects of MD
rats separated from mother for even a day had permanent affects

94
Q

4 attachment points for maternal deprivation

A

Deprivation vs privation
Critical vs sensitive periods
Flawed evidence
Evidence support

95
Q

Outline Rutter et al. Research

A

Followed 165 Romanian Orphans
Who were adopted by UK families
Can good care make up for bad early attachments ?
Physical and cognitive development assessed at 4,6,11,15,22-25

96
Q

What are the findings of Rutter et al. Research ?

A

Low IQ
ADHD more common
Disinhibited attachment
When adopted before 6 months , less disinhibited attachment

97
Q

Zeanah et al. Research

A

95 Romanian orphans ages 12-31 months
Measured attachment by strange situation
19% secure , 44% disinhibited

98
Q

What are the effects of institutionalisation and why?

A

Disinhibited attachment - as adaptation to living in institution with many CG - same friendly behaviour to all

Intellectual disability - adopted before 6 months = by 4 caught up

99
Q

4 evaluation points for institutionalisation

A

Real world application
Lack of adult data
Fewer confounding variables
Still some confounding variables

100
Q

How can research into institutionalisation have real world value?

A

To give orphans key workers rather than many caregivers
Foster care preferred to improve conditions
Understanding effects to improve and fix issues

101
Q

Why is lack of adult data from the Romanian orphans bad?

A

Only followed them into 20s
Main questions of long term effects ( eg marriage and parenthood ) still unanswered
They may actually eventually catch up

102
Q

Why does Romanian orphans have less confounding variables then Goldfarb?

A

Goldfarb - war orphans - difficult to disable effects of neglect , abuse and bereavement from the effects of institutionalisation
However Romanian orphans had loving parents so less confounding variables
Higher external validity

103
Q

Why are there still some confounding variables in the Romanian orphan studies?

A

Romanian institutions still had poor conditions
EG little comfort or intellectual stimulation
Does research show effect of institutionalisation or poor institutional care

104
Q

How does the internal working model predict future attachment?

A

It is a template for future child and adult relationships
Therefore childhood attachment is very important for functional future relationships
Type A and C struggle to form attachment

105
Q

How does attachment type relate to peer relationships

A

Secure - best quality
Insecure - friend ship difficulties
Insecure avoidant= bullying victims
Insecure resistant = bullies

106
Q

How does attachment type affect future attachment ?

A

Hazan + Shaver - secure babies have best adult outcome ( romantic relationships )
Insecure avoidant - have intimacy issues
Insecure resistant - friendship issues
Bailey et al- mothers attachment affects babies

107
Q

4 evaluation points for Influence of early attachment on later relationships

A

Research support
Conflicting evidence
Validity issues
Confounding variables

108
Q

What is the research support for attachment types affecting future relationships?

A

Review of attachment studies concluded that early attachments predict later attachment and emotional wellbeing .

Eg - disorganised = mental disorder
Secure has advantages

109
Q

What is the counter evidence for attachment type affecting future relationships?

A

Research on 43 individuals studied from 1-16 .
No evidence of continuity from 1-16 years of attachment type

110
Q

Why does research into the affect of early attachment on later relationships have research issues

A

Most of the assessed retrospective using self report
= social desirability bias
= forgetting
Assumes attachment type will remain the same

111
Q

What else could cause the continuity between early and later attachments ?

A

Parenting style and genes

Psychology P1 (8 decks)

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