Memory Flashcards
what is coding
- the process of converting information between different forms
- different memories are stored in different formats
what was the method for Baddeley’s experiment
- gave different groups different lists to remember
group 1- acoustically similar ( words that sound similar eg cat, cab, can)
group 2- acoustically dissimilar (words that sound different eg few, cow, pit)
group 3- semantically similar ( words with similar meaning eg great large big)
group 4- semantically dissimilar ( words with different meanings eg good, huge, hot)
what were the results for Baddeleys experiment
findings : when recall immediately - worse at recalling acoustically similar
when recalled after 20 minutes- worse at recalling semantically similar
what was Baddeley’s research on
coding
what was jacobs study on
capacity
what was Millers hypothesis
- he notes that things come in sevens eg * seven notes on musical scale * seven days of the week * seven deadly sins - span of the short term memory is 7 items, plus or minus two
summarise Jacob study
- researcher reads out four digits and the ptsp is asked to recall the back in the correct order
- if this is correct, the researcher reads out five digits and so on until the participant cannot recall the order correctly
- Jacob found that the mean span for digits across all ptsps was 9.3 items
- the mean span for letters was 7.3
what is chunking
grouping sets of digits or letters into units or chunks
who studied the duration of the short term memory?
peterson + Peterson
what did Peterson do
- he tested 24 undergrads in 8 trials
- gave them consonant eg YCG
- the student counted back from 100 until told to stop
- on each trial they were told to stop after varying periods of time
what did peterson find
after 3 seconds, the average recall was about 80%
after 18 seconds the average recall was 3%
suggest that the short term memory may be about 18 seconds unless rehearsed
who studied the duration of long term memory
Bahrick
Summarise Bahricks study
- YEAR BOOK
studied 392 people aged 17-74 and asked to recall rhe names from photo recognition - after 15 years 90% could recall name and after 48 years 70% could recall names
what does the multistore model represent
a representation of how memory works in terms of three stores called sensory register, short term memory and long-term memory. it also represents how information is transferred from one store to another.
what is the duration of the sensory register
less than half a second
what is the capacity of the sensory register
very high
how is the sensory register coded
visually and acoustically
how is the short term memory coded
acoustically
what is the capacity of the short term memory
5-9 items
what is the duration of the short term memory
18 seconds
how is the long term memory coded
semantically
what is the capacity of the long term memory
unlimited
what is the duration of the long term memory
timeless
how do you go from the short term memory to the long term memory
prolonged rehearsal
how do you go from the long term memory to the short term memory
retrieval
what did Tulving realise
the multi store model views on long term memory was too simplistic
he proposed that there are three long term memory stores
name the three types of long term memory
- episodic memory
- semantic memory
- procedural
what is episodic memory
the long term memory store responsible for personal events
eg people, objects, places
retrieved with effort
what is semantic memory
long term memory store of worldly knowledge (factual information)
recalled deliberately / effort to recall
what is the procedural memory
long term memory store for how we do things
what are somem features of episodic memory
- time stamped
- conscious to recall
what are some features of semantic memory
- not time stamped
- less personal
- contains immense collection of material which is constantly been added to
what are some features of procedural memory
- recall with no effort
- not time stamped
- no effort to remember how to do something
which two researchers made the working model
Baddeley and Hitch
what is the working memory model
a representation of the short term memory
suggests that the short term memory is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub units coordinated by a central decision making system
what is the four main components of the working memory model
- central executive
- phonological loop
- visuo- spatial sketchpad
- episodic buffer
What is the role of the central executive ?
Component of the working model that coordinates activities
Allocates processing resources to those activities
Alternative processes makes decisions
What does the phonological loop do
- processes information in terms of sound, written and spoken
What is the phonological loop divide in
- phonological store Stores what you hear - articulating process Allows maintenance reversal Capacity is two second of what you say
What does the Visuo-spatial sketch pad do
- Processes visual and spatial information in a mental space called the inner eye
- Visual cache: stores visual data
- inner scribe : records the arrangement of objects in visual field
What is the episodic buffer
- brings together information from other sub systems into one memory
- acts as a bridge between short term memory and long term memory
- added in 2000 by Baddeley
- maintain a sense of time
- for visual, spatial and verbal information
What are the two reasons for forgetting
- interference theory
- retrieval failure
What is forgetting in terms of interference
When one memory blocks another causing both or one memories to be distorted or forgotten
What are the two types of interference
- Proactive interference : old memory interferes with a new memory
- Retroactive interference : new memory interferes with an old memory
What was Mecgeoh and McDonald’s theory
Interference is more common if the information is similar
What was Mcgeoh and McDonald’s procedure
- ptsp learns 1 set of words with 100% accuracy and then another set and they have to recall the first
- 2nd list could either be : synonyms, antonyms, unrelated, consonant syllable, 3 digit number, no new list
What did Mcgeoh and McDonald’s find
- most similar 2nd and 1st = worse re all
- synonyms = 1.2 items recalled
- number = 3.5 items recalled
What is retrieval failure
- forgetting what happened due to insufficient cues
What are the two types of cues
- context cue (environment)
2. State cues (how you feel)
Describe Godden and Baddeley procedure
- divers learn a list of words in different condition and recall in different condition
- 4 conditions
1. Learn and recall on land
2. Learn on land recall in water
3. Learn and recall in water
4. Learn in water recall on land
What we’re the findings of Godden and Baddeley
Accurate recall was 40% higher in the matching group
What did Godden and Baddeley study
Context dependent research
What did Carter and Cassady research
State dependent research
What was Carter and Cassadys procedure
- gave antihistamine to ptsp, which will have a drowsy effect
- 4 conditions
1. Learn and recall on on drugs
2. Learn on drugs recall not on drugs
3. Learn and recall not on drugs
4. Learn not on drugs recall on drugs
What was the finding of CARTER and CASSADYS study
Performance was worse with un matched pairs
What factors effect eye witness testimony
- Leading questions
- Post event discussion
- Anxiety
Who tested the effect of leading questions on eye witness testimony (2)
Lofted and Palmer
Who tested the effect of post event discussion on eye witness testimony (1)
Gabbert
Who tested how anxiety can make recall worse (2)
Johnson and scott
Who tested how anxiety can make recall better (2)
Yuille and Cutshall
What did Loftus and Palmer don
- Arranged 5 groups of students to watch the same clip of a car crash
- they asked how fast they thought the car was going, each time using a different verb : smashed, collided, hit, bumped, contacted
What we’re the finding of Loftus and Palmers study
31.8 mph for contacted
40.5 mph for smashed
Asked if glass was seen or not :
When contacted by as used they did not see glass
When smashed was used they did see glass
What was Gabberts procedure
- Got ptsps to watch a video of the same crime from different viewpoint
- they then discussed with each other before they recalled the information
What we’re Gabberts findings
- 70% of those who had a discussion recalled wrong
- 0% if those who did not have a discussion recalled wrong
What was Johnson and Scott’s procedure
- Asked ptsps to sit in a waiting room and they heard arguing in another room
- a man comes out the other room
- half of ptsps saw him carry a pen and the other half saw him carry a bloody knife
- ptsps asked to identify the man who came out of the room from 50 faces
What was Johnson and Scott’s findings
- when there was low anxiety with the pen, 49% of ptsps identified the man correctly
- when there was high anxiety with the knife; 33% of ptsps identified the man correctly
What is tunnel theory
When anxiety makes people focus on the object not the person
What was Yuille and Cutshalls procedure
Interviewed 13 witnesses of a shooting in Canada 4 months after it took place
They asked then to rate their levels of stress and then measured the accuracy of what they remembered
What we’re Yuille and Cutshalls findings
- when they were more stressed 88% accuracy
- when they were less stressed 75% accuracy
What is the final conclusion of anxiety
When anxiety is moderate accuracy is best
When too low or too high accuracy is not good
What is cognitive interview
Interviewing eye witness to retrieve more accurate memories using different techniques
What are the 4 stages of cognitive interview
- Context reinstatement : return it scene in mind and imagines environment and emotion
- Report everything : say every detail even if irrelevant- may trigger another question urge of information
- Reverse order : start w the last thing they say and work backwards
- Changing perspective - disrupt Effect of expectations
Who made enhanced cognitive interview and what is to
Fisher
Additional elements of the cognitive interview to focus on social dynamics
Includes
Reducing anxiety, minimising distraction, open end questions and slow speaking
