Medical Abbreviations A - F Flashcards

Contains all word parts and their meanings

1
Q

a-

A

without, not (an is added before words beginning with a vowel)

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2
Q

-a

A

noun ending / a name

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3
Q

ab-

A

away from

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4
Q

abdomin/o

A

abdomen

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5
Q

-able

A

capable of / having ability to

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6
Q

ac-

A

pertaining to/to/toward

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7
Q

acanth/o

A

spiny

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8
Q

acarin/o

A

mites of the order Acarina

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9
Q

acar/i/o

A

mites of the order Acarina

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10
Q

acetabul/o

A

acetabulum

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11
Q

acet/o

A

vinegar

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12
Q

aceton-

A

ketones/acetone

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13
Q

achill/o

A

Achilles tendon

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14
Q

acid/o

A

acid

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15
Q

acin/i

A

sac-like dilatation

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16
Q

acne/o

A

acne vulgaris / point / peak

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17
Q

acou-

A

hear/hearing

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18
Q

-acousia

A

condition of hearing

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19
Q

acoust/o

A

hear/hearing/sound

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20
Q

acro-

A

extremities, point

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21
Q

acromi/o

A

acromion (point of the shoulder)

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22
Q

act-

A

do, drive, act

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23
Q

actin/o

A

rays, eg. of sun / ultraviolet radiation

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24
Q

acu-

A

hear/hearing/severe/sudden

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25
Q

-acusia

A

condition / sense of hearing

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26
Q

ad-

A

to/toward/in the direction of the mid line/near dental enamel

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27
Q

adamant/o

A

dental enamel

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28
Q

aden/o

A

gland

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29
Q

adenoid-

A

adenoids (nasopharyngeal tonsils)

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30
Q

adip/o

A

adipose tissue / fat

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31
Q

adnex/o

A

bound to / conjoined

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32
Q

adrenal/o

A

adrenal gland

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33
Q

adren/o

A

adrenal gland

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34
Q

adrenocortic/o

A

adrenal cortex

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35
Q

-aem-

A

blood (Am. -em-)

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36
Q

-aemia

A

condition of blood (Am. -emia)

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37
Q

aer/o

A

air/gas

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38
Q

aesthe/s/i/o

A

sensation/sensitivity (Am. esthe/s/i/o)

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39
Q

aeti/o

A

cause (Am. eti/o)

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40
Q

af-

A

to/towards/near

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41
Q

ag-

A

to/towards/near

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42
Q

agglutin/o

A

sticking / clumping together

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43
Q

-ago

A

abnormal condition / disease

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44
Q

-agogic

A

pertaining to inducing/ stimulating

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45
Q

-agogue

A

an agent that promotes/ induces

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46
Q

agora-

A

market place/ open space

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47
Q

-agra

A

seizure I sudden pain

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48
Q

-aise

A

comfort/ease

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49
Q

-al

A

pertaining to

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50
Q

-al

A

used in pharmacology to mean a drug or drug action

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51
Q

albin/o

A

white

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52
Q

alb/i/o

A

white

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53
Q

album-

A

white

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54
Q

albumin/o

A

albumin/albumen

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55
Q

aldosterone-

A

aldosterone

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56
Q

-algesia

A

condition of pain

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57
Q

alges/i/o

A

sense of pain

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58
Q

-algia

A

condition of pain

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59
Q

alg/e/i/o

A

pain

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60
Q

aliment/o

A

to nourish

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61
Q

all/o

A

other I different from normal

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62
Q

alopec

A

baldness/ like the mange of (a fox)

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63
Q

alve/o

A

trough / channel / cavity

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64
Q

alveol/o

A

alveoli (of lungs)

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65
Q

ambi-

A

both / on both sides

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66
Q

ambly/o

A

dull/dim

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67
Q

ameb/o (Am.)

A

ameba, a type of protozoan

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68
Q

amel/o

A

dental enamel

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69
Q

-amine

A

nitrogen containing compound

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70
Q

amni/o

A

amnion / fetal membrane

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71
Q

amnion/o

A

amnion / fetal membrane

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72
Q

amoeb/o

A

amoeba a type of protozoan (Am. ameb/o)

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73
Q

amph/i

A

both / doubly/ both sides

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74
Q

amyl/o

A

starch

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75
Q

an-

A

without / not

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76
Q

-an

A

pertaining to/ characteristic of

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77
Q

ana-

A

reversion/ going backward/ apart / up/ again

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78
Q

ancyl/o

A

crooked/stiffening/fusing/bent

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79
Q

andr/o

A

male/masculine/man

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80
Q

-ane

A

a saturated, open-chain hydrocarbon

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81
Q

aneurysm/o

A

aneurysm

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82
Q

angi/o

A

vessel / blood vessel

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83
Q

an-iso-

A

unequal/dissimilar

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84
Q

ankyl/o

A

crooked/stiffening/fusing/bent

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85
Q

an/o

A

anus

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86
Q

-ant

A

having the characteristic of/ an agent that…

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87
Q

ante-

A

before in time or place/ in front of/ forward

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88
Q

anter/o

A

front/ in front of/ anterior to

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89
Q

anthrac/o

A

coal dust/ black

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90
Q

anthrop/o

A

man/human

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91
Q

anti-

A

against

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92
Q

antr/o

A

antrum I maxillary sinus

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93
Q

anxi/o

A

anxiety

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94
Q

aort/o

A

aorta

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95
Q

ap-

A

to / towards / near / separated from

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96
Q

-aph-

A

touch

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97
Q

-apheresis

A

removal

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98
Q

aphth/o

A

ulcer

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99
Q

apic/o

A

apex

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100
Q

ap/o

A

away from I detached/ derived from/ separate

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101
Q

aponeur/o

A

aponeurosis (flat tendon)

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102
Q

append/ic/o

A

appendix

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103
Q

aqu/a/e/o

A

water

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104
Q

-ar

A

pertaining to

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105
Q

arachn/o

A

spider

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106
Q

arc/o

A

arch/bowed

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107
Q

-arch/e

A

beginning

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108
Q

arrhen/o

A

male/masculine

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109
Q

arter/i/o

A

artery

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110
Q

arteriol/o

A

arteriole

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111
Q

arthr/o

A

joint

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112
Q

articul/o

A

joint

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113
Q

-ary

A

pertaining to / connected with

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114
Q

as-

A

to/towards/near

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115
Q

-ase

A

an enzyme

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116
Q

-asia

A

state or condition

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117
Q

-asis

A

state or condition

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118
Q

-asthenia

A

condition of weakness

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119
Q

asthen/o

A

weakness

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120
Q

astr/o

A

star-shaped/star

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121
Q

at-

A

to/towards/near

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122
Q

-ate

A

denoting a state or function / possessing / a chemical from a specific source / like

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123
Q

atel/o

A

imperfect/incomplete

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124
Q

ather/o

A

atheroma, a fatty plaque lining a blood vessel

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125
Q

-ation

A

action/condition

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126
Q

-atresia

A

condition of occlusion / closure / absence of opening

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127
Q

atret/o

A

closure of a normal opening / imperforation

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128
Q

atri/o

A

atrium

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129
Q

audi/o

A

hearing / sense of hearing

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130
Q

audit/o

A

hearing / sense of hearing

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131
Q

-aural

A

pertaining to the ear

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132
Q

auricul/o

A

pinna of the ear or auricle

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133
Q

aur/i/o

A

ear/hearing

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134
Q

auto-

A

self

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135
Q

aux/i/o

A

increase

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136
Q

-auxis

A

increase

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137
Q

-ax

A

noun ending / a name

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138
Q

axill/o

A

armpit

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139
Q

ax/i/o

A

axis

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140
Q

axon/o

A

axis / axon of neuron

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141
Q

azot/o

A

urea/nitrogen

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142
Q

bat-

A

go/walk/stand

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143
Q

bacill/o

A

bacillus / a rod-shaped bacterium

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144
Q

bacter/i/o

A

bacterium/bacteria

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145
Q

balan/o

A

glans penis

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146
Q

ballist/o

A

throw/movement

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147
Q

bar/i/o

A

pressure / weight

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148
Q

bartholin/o

A

Bartholin glands / greater vestibular glands of the vagina

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149
Q

basi-

A

base/basic/alkaline

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150
Q

baso-

A

base/basic/alkaline

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151
Q

bathy-

A

deep

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152
Q

bi-

A

two/twice/double/life

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153
Q

bili-

A

bile

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154
Q

bilirubin/o

A

bilirubin

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155
Q

bin-

A

two each / double

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156
Q

bio-

A

life/living

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157
Q

-blast

A

germ cell / immature cell / embryonic cell / developing stage

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158
Q

blast/o

A

germ cell / immature cell / embryonic cell / developing stage

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159
Q

blenn/o

A

mucus

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160
Q

blephar/o

A

eyelid

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161
Q

bol-

A

ball

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162
Q

brachi/o

A

arm

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163
Q

brachy-

A

short

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164
Q

brady-

A

slow

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165
Q

brev/i

A

short

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166
Q

bromidr/o

A

stench / smell of sweat

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167
Q

bronch/i/o

A

bronchus / bronchial tube/ windpipe

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168
Q

bronchiol/o

A

bronchiole

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169
Q

bront/o

A

thunder

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170
Q

bucca-

A

cheek

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171
Q

bucc/o

A

cheek

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172
Q

bulb/o

A

bulb/ medulla oblongata

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173
Q

burs/o

A

bursa (fluid-filled sac)

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174
Q

byssin/o

A

cotton dust

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175
Q

cac/o

A

bad/ill/abnormal

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176
Q

caec/o

A

caecum (Am. cecum)

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177
Q

calcane/o

A

calcaneus / heel bone

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178
Q

calci/i/o

A

calcium/lime/heel

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179
Q

calcin/o

A

calcium

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180
Q

calcul/o

A

calculus / stone / little stone

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181
Q

calic-

A

calyx (Am. calix) / a cup-shaped organ or cavity

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182
Q

calor/i

A

heat

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183
Q

calyc-

A

calyx (Am. calix) / a cup-shaped organ or cavity

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184
Q

cancer/o

A

cancer (general term)

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185
Q

canth/o

A

canthus (corner of the eye)

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186
Q

capill/o

A

blood capillary / hair-like

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187
Q

capit/o

A

head

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188
Q

-capnia

A

condition of carbon dioxide

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189
Q

caps-

A

container

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190
Q

capsul/o

A

capsule

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191
Q

carb/o

A

carbon

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192
Q

carcin/o

A

cancerous / malignant tumour of epithelial tissue

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193
Q

carcinomat-

A

carcinoma

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194
Q

-cardia

A

condition of the heat

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195
Q

cardi/o

A

heart

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196
Q

cari/o

A

rot/decay (of teeth)

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197
Q

carp/o

A

carpal / wrist bones

198
Q

cary/o

A

nucleus

199
Q

cat/o

A

down/negative/wrong/back

200
Q

caud/o

A

tail / towards the tail / lower part of body

201
Q

caus-

A

burn/corrosive

202
Q

caut-

A

burn

203
Q

cav-

A

hollow

204
Q

cec/o (Am.)

A

cecum

205
Q

-cele

A

swelling/protrusion/hernia

206
Q

celi/o

A

hollow/abdomen

207
Q

cell-

A

cell

208
Q

cellul-

A

cell

209
Q

cel/o (Am.)

A

hollow/abdomen/celom

210
Q

cement/o

A

cementum of a tooth

211
Q

cen/o

A

new/empty/common

212
Q

-centesis

A

surgical puncture to remove fluid

213
Q

centi­

A

hundred / one hundredth

214
Q

centr/i/o

A

centre / central location

215
Q

cephal/o

A

head

216
Q

cerat/o

A

horny/epidermis/cornea (synonym: kerat/o)

217
Q

cerebell/o

A

cerebellum

218
Q

cerebr/i/o

A

cerebrum/brain

219
Q

cer/o

A

wax

220
Q

cerumin/o

A

cerumen / ear wax

221
Q

cervic/o

A

cervix

222
Q

-chalasis

A

slackening/loosening

223
Q

chancr­-

A

chancre, a destructive sore

224
Q

cheil/o

A

lip

225
Q

cheir/o

A

hand

226
Q

chem/i/c/o

A

chemical

227
Q

-chezia

A

condition of defaecation, especially of foreign substances

228
Q

chil/o

A

lip (cheil/o now used)

229
Q

chir/o

A

hand

230
Q

chlorhydr/o

A

hydrochloric acid

231
Q

chlor/o

A

green/chlorine

232
Q

cholangi/o

A

bile vessel / bile duct

233
Q

cholecyst/o

A

gallbladder

234
Q

choledoch/o

A

common bile duct

235
Q

chol/e/o

A

bile

236
Q

cholester/o

A

cholesterol

237
Q

chondr/o

A

cartilage

238
Q

chord/o

A

string/cord

239
Q

chore/o

A

chorea / dance / jerky movement

240
Q

chori/o

A

chorion / outer fetal membrane

241
Q

chorioid/o

A

choroid layer of eye

242
Q

chromat/o

A

colour

243
Q

-chromia

A

condition of haemoglobin / colour (Am. hemoglobin)

244
Q

chrom/o

A

colour

245
Q

chron/o

A

time

246
Q

chrys/o

A

gold

247
Q

chyl/e/o

A

chyle, a fluid formed by lacteals (lymphatics) in the intestine, a product of fat digestion

248
Q

chym/o

A

chyme, a creamy material produced by digestion of food

249
Q

cib/o

A

meal

250
Q

-cidal

A

pertaining to killing

251
Q

-cide

A

agent that kills / killing

252
Q

cili/o

A

cilia / ciliary body of eye / eyelash

253
Q

cinemat/o

A

movement/motion (picture)

254
Q

cine/o

A

movement/motion

255
Q

cinesi/o

A

movement/motion

256
Q

circum-

A

around

257
Q

cirrh/o

A

yellow/tawny

258
Q

cirs/o

A

varicose vein / varix

259
Q

cis-

A

on the near side / this side

260
Q

-cis-

A

cut/kill

261
Q

cistern/o

A

cistern / enclosed space (sub-arachnoid space)

262
Q

-clasia

A

condition of breaking

263
Q

-clasis

A

breaking

264
Q

-clast

A

a cell that breaks

265
Q

claustr/o

A

barrier/enclosed

266
Q

clavic/o

A

clavicle

267
Q

clavicul/o

A

clavicle

268
Q

-cle

A

small

269
Q

cleid/o

A

clavicle

270
Q

clin/o

A

bend/incline

271
Q

clitor/i/o

A

clitoris

272
Q

clon/o

A

clone of cells

273
Q

-clonus

A

violent action

274
Q

-clysis

A

infusion/injection/irrigation

275
Q

co-

A

with/together

276
Q

coagul/o

A

clotting

277
Q

coccid/i

A

types of parasitic protozoa of the order Coccidia

278
Q

cocc/i/o

A

a berry-shaped bacterium/a coccus

279
Q

-coccus

A

a berry-shaped bacterium

280
Q

coccyg/o

A

coccyx

281
Q

cochle/o

A

cochlea

282
Q

-coel(e)

A

hollow/abdomen

283
Q

coel/o

A

hollow/abdomen/ceolom (Am. celom)

284
Q

col-

A

with/together

285
Q

coll/a

A

glue

286
Q

collagen/o

A

collagen

287
Q

col/o

A

colon

288
Q

colon/o

A

colon

289
Q

colp/o

A

vagina

290
Q

com-

A

with/together

291
Q

coma/t/o

A

a deep sleep, a coma or state of unconsciousness

292
Q

con-

A

with/together

293
Q

condyl/o

A

condyl

294
Q

coni/o

A

dust

295
Q

conjunctiv/o

A

conjunctiva

296
Q

contra-

A

against/opposed/opposite

297
Q

-conus

A

cone-like protrusion

298
Q

copr/o

A

faeces (Am. Feces)

299
Q

cor-

A

with/together

300
Q

cord/o

A

a cord

301
Q

cor/e/o

A

pupil

302
Q

-coria

A

condition of the pupils

303
Q

corne/o

A

cornea/horny (consisting of keratin)

304
Q

coron/o

A

crown-like projection / encircling / coronary vessels of the heart

305
Q

corpor/o

A

body

306
Q

-cortext-

A

outer part / bark

307
Q

cortic/o

A

adrenal cortex/ cortex/ outer region

308
Q

cost/o

A

rib

309
Q

cox/o

A

hip / hip joint

310
Q

crani/o

A

cranium/skull

311
Q

cren/o

A

crenated/notched

312
Q

-crescent

A

crescent / sickle-shaped / shaped like a new moon

313
Q

-crine

A

secrete

314
Q

crin/o

A

secrete

315
Q

-crit

A

separate / device for measuring cells

316
Q

crur/o

A

leg

317
Q

cry/o

A

relating to cold

318
Q

crypt/o

A

hidden

319
Q

cubit/o

A

elbow

320
Q

culd/o

A

Douglas pouch / rectouterine pouch/ cul-de sac

321
Q

-cule

A

small

322
Q

cult-

A

cultivate

323
Q

cune/i

A

wedge (shape)

324
Q

cutane/o

A

skin

325
Q

cut/i

A

skin

326
Q

cyan/o

A

blue

327
Q

cycl/o

A

ciliary body / circle

328
Q

cyes/i/o

A

pregnancy

329
Q

-cyesis

A

pregnancy

330
Q

cylindr/o

A

cylinder

331
Q

cyll/o

A

deformity

332
Q

cyn/o

A

dog

333
Q

cyrt/o

A

curved / abnormal curvature

334
Q

cyst/i/o

A

bladder / a cyst

335
Q

-cyte

A

cell

336
Q

cyt/o

A

cell

337
Q

-cytosis

A

condition of cells, usually an abnormal increase

338
Q

dacry/o

A

tear / lacrimal apparatus

339
Q

dacryocyst/o

A

lacrimal sac

340
Q

dactyl/o

A

digits / fingers or toes

341
Q

de-

A

down / away from / loss of / reversing

342
Q

deca-

A

ten

343
Q

deci-

A

one-tenth

344
Q

demi-

A

half

345
Q

dem/o

A

people

346
Q

denr/i/o

A

tree/tree-like (dendrite of neuron)

347
Q

dentin/o

A

dentine of tooth (Am. dentin)

348
Q

dent/i/o

A

tooth

349
Q

derm/a/o

A

skin

350
Q

dermat/o

A

skin

351
Q

descemet/o

A

Descemet membrane (of cornea)

352
Q

-desis

A

fixation / to bind together by surgery/ sticking together

353
Q

desm/o

A

band/ligament

354
Q

deuter/o

A

second

355
Q

dextro-

A

right

356
Q

di-

A

two/twice/double

357
Q

dia-

A

through/apart/across/between

358
Q

-dialysis

A

separate

359
Q

diaphor/o

A

sweating (excessive)

360
Q

diaphragmat/o

A

diaphragm

361
Q

diastol-

A

diastole

362
Q

didym-

A

twins

363
Q

digit/o

A

finger / toe

364
Q

dipl/o-

A

double

365
Q

dips/o

A

thirst

366
Q

dis-

A

apart / reversal / separation / duplication / free from

367
Q

disc/o

A

intervertebral disc

368
Q

disk/o (Am.)

A

intervertebral disk

369
Q

dist/o

A

far from point of origin

370
Q

diverticul/o

A

diverticulum

371
Q

doch/o

A

duct / to receive

372
Q

dolich/o

A

long

373
Q

dolor/i/o

A

pain (dol, unit of pain)

374
Q

-dorsal

A

pertaining to the back (of the body)

375
Q

dors/i/o

A

the back (of the body) / dorsal

376
Q

-drome

A

a course / conduction / flowing

377
Q

drom/o

A

a course / conduction / flowing

378
Q

-duct-

A

a tube to lead material toward or away from a structure

379
Q

duoden/o

A

duodenum

380
Q

dur/o

A

dura mater / hard

381
Q

dynam/o

A

force/power (of movement)

382
Q

-dynia

A

condition of pain

383
Q

dys-

A

difficult/disordered/painful/bad

384
Q

e-

A

away from / out from / outside / without

385
Q

-e

A

noun ending / a name

386
Q

-eal

A

pertaining to

387
Q

ec-

A

away from / out from / outside / without

388
Q

ech/o

A

echo / reflected sound

389
Q

ect­

A

out / outside / outer part

390
Q

ecto­

A

out / outside / outer part

391
Q

ectopia­

A

condition of displacement

392
Q

ectop/o

A

displaced away from normal position

393
Q

-ectasia

A

condition of dilation or stretching

394
Q

-ectasis

A

dilatation, stretching

395
Q

-ectomy

A

removal, excision

396
Q

ectro-

A

congenital absence / miscarriage

397
Q

edema- (Am.)

A

condition of swelling due to fluid

398
Q

ef-

A

out / away from

399
Q

eikon/o

A

icon

400
Q

elast/o

A

elastic / elastic tissue / elastin

401
Q

electr/o

A

electrical

402
Q

ele/o (Am.)

A

oil/fat

403
Q

ellipto-

A

shaped like an ellipse

404
Q

em-

A

in

405
Q

-em- (Am)

A

blood

406
Q

-ema

A

condition

407
Q

embol/o

A

embolus/plug/blockage

408
Q

embry/o

A

embryo

409
Q

-emesis

A

vomiting

410
Q

emet/o

A

vomiting

411
Q

-emia (Am.)

A

condition of blood

412
Q

emmetr/o

A

in dw􀀖 measure/ normally proportioned

413
Q

-emphraxis

A

blocking / stopping up

414
Q

en-

A

within/ in

415
Q

encephal/o

A

brain

416
Q

endo­

A

within/inside/inner

417
Q

endocardi/o

A

endocardium

418
Q

endocrin/o

A

endocrine (gland)

419
Q

endometri/o

A

endometrium of uterus (the lining of the uterus)

420
Q

endotheli/o

A

endothelium

421
Q

enter/o

A

intestine

422
Q

-ent

A

person/agent

423
Q

ento­

A

within, inside

424
Q

eosin/o

A

rosy-red / dawn coloured / eosin, a red acid dye

425
Q

ep-

A

above/ upon/ on

426
Q

epi­

A

above I upon / on / in addition

427
Q

epiderm/

A

epidermis

428
Q

epididym/o

A

epididymis

429
Q

epiglott/o

A

epiglottis

430
Q

epilept/i/o

A

epilepsy

431
Q

epipl/o

A

omentum

432
Q

episi/o

A

vulva/pudendum

433
Q

epitheli/o

A

epithelium

434
Q

equin/o

A

horse

435
Q

-er

A

one who / a person / an agent

436
Q

erg/o/n/o

A

work

437
Q

-erysis

A

drag / draw / suck out

438
Q

erythem/o

A

reddening of the skin / flushed / erythema

439
Q

erythr/o

A

red

440
Q

-esis

A

abnormal state / condition

441
Q

es/o

A

within/inwards

442
Q

esophag/o (Am.)

A

esophagus/gullet

443
Q

esthesi/o (Am.)

A

sensation

444
Q

estr/o (Am.)

A

estrogen/female/estrus

445
Q

ethm/o

A

ethmoid bone

446
Q

ethmoid/o

A

ethmoid bone

447
Q

eti/o (Am.)

A

causation (of disease)

448
Q

eu-

A

good/normal/easily

449
Q

eury-

A

wide/broad

450
Q

ex-

A

out / out of / away from

451
Q

exo-

A

out / away from / outside

452
Q

-externa

A

external

453
Q

extr/a/o

A

outside of / beyond / outward

454
Q

faci/o

A

face

455
Q

faec/a/o

A

faeces (Am. feces)

456
Q

falc/i

A

falx / sickle-shaped structure

457
Q

fascicul/o

A

fascicle

458
Q

fasci/o

A

fascia/fibrous tissue, eg. Covering muscles

459
Q

febr/o

A

fever

460
Q

fec/o (Am.)

A

feces/waste

461
Q

femor/o

A

femur/thigh

462
Q

-ferent

A

carrying/to carry/ to bear

463
Q

fer/o

A

to carry/to bear

464
Q

ferr/o

A

iron

465
Q

fet/i/o (Am)

A

fetus

466
Q

fibrill/o

A

musculat twitching

467
Q

fibrin/o

A

fibrinogen

468
Q

fimbri/o

A

fringe

469
Q

fibr/o

A

fibre

470
Q

fibul/o

A

fibula

471
Q

-fida

A

split

472
Q

fil/o

A

thread

473
Q

fissur-

A

split/cleft

474
Q

fistul/o

A

tube/pipe

475
Q

flagell/o

A

flagellum/whip

476
Q

flav/o

A

yellow

477
Q

-flect

A

bend

478
Q

-flex-

A

bend

479
Q

foet/o

A

fluorescent/luminous/flow

480
Q

follicul/o

A

small sac/follicle

481
Q

fore-

A

before/in front of

482
Q

-form

A

having form/structure of

483
Q

foss/o

A

depression

484
Q

fove/o

A

pit/often used to mean the central fovea of the retina

485
Q

fraen/o

A

frenum or faenulum/a restraining structure eg fraenulum of the hip

486
Q

fren/o (Am.)

A

frenum or faenulum/a restraining structure eg fraenulum of the hip

487
Q

front/o

A

front/forehead

488
Q

-fuge

A

agent that supresses/gets rid of

489
Q

fund/o

A

bottom/base (of an organ)

490
Q

fung/i

A

fungus

491
Q

furc/o

A

branching

492
Q

-fy

A

making or cause to become