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mass transport in animals Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the adaptations that exchange surfaces have to increase the rate of diffusion?

A
  1. Large surface area
  2. Thin to produce a short diffusion pathway
  3. Maintained concentration gradient
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2
Q

How do you calculate the rate of diffusion

A

(surface area x difference in concentration) / length of diffusion pathway

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3
Q

Describe how the fish gill anatomy creates a large surface area

A
  1. There are 4 layers of gills on both sides of the head made up of stacked gill filaments
  2. Gill filaments are covered in gill lamellae where diffusion occurs
  3. This creates a large surface area
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4
Q

Describe the adaptations of fish to increase the rate of diffusion

A
  1. Large surface area to volume ratio created by many gill filaments covered by many gill lamellae
  2. Short diffusion distance due to a capillary network in every lamella and very thin gill lamellae
  3. Maintain concentration gradient due to the countercurrent flow mechanism
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5
Q

Describe the countercurrent mechanism in fish

A

Water flows over the gills in the opposite direction to the blood flowing in the capillaries

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6
Q

Describe how the countercurrent mechanism in fish is advantageous

A
  1. It ensures that equilibrium isn’t reached as the concentration of oxygen in the water is always higher than that in the blood
  2. Also ensures that a diffusion gradient is maintained across the entire length of the gill lamellae
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7
Q

Describe the anatomy of terrestrial insects

A
  • Have an exoskeleton made of hard fibrous material for protection and a lipid bilayer to prevent water loss
  • Don’t have lungs, they have a tracheal system
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8
Q

What are the adaptations of insects that prevent water loss?

A
  1. Small surface area to volume ratio where water evaporates from
  2. Waterproof exoskeleton
  3. Spiracles where gases enter and water can evaporate from, they can open and close to reduce water loss
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9
Q

What are the components of the tracheal system?

A
  1. Spiracles
  2. Trachea
  3. Tracheoles
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10
Q

Describe the spiracles in the tracheal system

A
  • Round, valve-like openings on the length of the abdomen
  • Oxygen and carbon dioxide can enter/leave via the spircales
  • The trachea attaches to the spiracles
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11
Q

Describe the trachea in the tracheal system

A
  • Network of internal tubes
  • They have rings within them to strengthen the tubes and keep them open
  • They branch into tracheoles
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12
Q

Describe the tracheoles in the tracheal system

A
  • Small tubes deep inside the abdomen
  • They extend throughout all tissues to deliver oxygen to respiring cells
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13
Q

List the different methods of moving gases in the tracheal system in insects

A
  1. Diffusion
  2. Mass transport
  3. Osmosis
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14
Q

Describe how insects use diffusion to move gases in the tracheal system

A
  • Cells respire
  • This uses up oxygen and produces carbon dioxide
  • Creating a concentration gradient from the tracheoles to the atmosphere
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15
Q

Describe how insects use mass transport to move gases in the tracheal system

A

Insect contracts and relaxes their abdominal muscles to move gasses on mass

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16
Q

Describe how insects use osmosis to move gases in the tracheal system

A
  • During flight, muscle cells respire anaerobically to produce lactate
  • This lowers the water potential of the cell
  • Water moves into the cell via osmosis which decreases the volume in the tracheoles so more air from the atmosphere is drawn in
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17
Q

Describe the adaptations of insects that ensure efficient diffusion

A
  1. The large surface area due to a large number of fine tracheoles
  2. Short diffusion pathway because walls of the tracheoles are thin and there is a short distance between spiracles and tracheoles
  3. Steep diffusion gradient due to the use of oxygen and carbon dioxide
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18
Q

Define breathing

A

Movement of air into and out of the lungs

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19
Q

Define respiration

A

Chemical reaction to release energy as ATP

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20
Q

Define gaseous exchange

A

Diffusion of oxygen from the air in the alveoli into the blood and of carbon dioxide from the blood into the air in the alveoli

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21
Q

What does the contraction of external intercostal muscles lead to

A

External intercostal muscle → contraction → inspiration

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22
Q

What does the contraction of internal intercostal muscles lead to

A

Internal intercostal muscle → contraction → expiration

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23
Q

Describe the process of inspiration

A
  • external intercostal muscles: contract to pull the ribs up and out
  • internal intercostal muscles: relax
  • diaphragm: contracts to move down and flattens
  • thoracic cavity pressure: initially drops, as air moves in it rise above atmospheric pressure
  • thoracic cavity volume: increases
  • movement of air: air moves into the lungs, as the atmospheric pressure is higher than that of the thorax
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24
Q

Describe the process of expiration

A
  • external intercostal muscles: relax
  • internal intercostal muscles: contract to pull the rib down and in
  • diaphragm: relaxes to move up and down
  • thoracic cavity pressure: initially high but decreases as air moves out
  • thoracic cavity volume: decreases
  • the movement of air: air moves out of the lungs as the pressure in the thorax is higher than that of the atmosphere
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25
Q

What type of process is inspiration

A

An active process that requires energy from ATP

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26
Q

What type of process is expiration

A

Passive, doesn’t require energy

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27
Q

Compare inspiration and expiration

A
  • External intercostal muscles contract in inspiration, relax in expiration
  • Internal intercostal muscles relax in inspiration, contract in expiration
  • Diaphragm contracts in inspiration, relax in expiration
  • Air pressure in the lungs decreases in inspiration, increases in expiration
  • Lung volume increases in inspiration, decreases in expiration
  • In inspiration air moves into the lungs from a high to low pressure, in expiration it moves out of lungs from a high to low pressure
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28
Q

Describe the alveoli

A

They are air sacs made of a single layer of thin flat cells

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29
Q

Describe the adaptations of the alveoli for efficient diffusion

A
  1. There are a lot of alveoli in the lungs which gives a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide
  2. The alveoli epithelium cells are thin to minimize diffusion distance
  3. Alveolus is surrounded by a network of capillaries to exchange gasses, maintaining a concentration gradient
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30
Q

Describe the movement of air in the alveoli

A
  1. Oxygen from the air moves down the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and into the alveoli down a pressure gradient
  2. The oxygen diffuses across the alveolar epithelium and then the capillary endothelium down a diffusion gradient
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31
Q

Why do we need a circulatory system?

A

Needed because multicellular organisms have a low surface area to volume ratio, so the circulatory system allows raw materials to be carried to body cells from specialised transport systems

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32
Q

What is the function of the heart

A

Heart pumps blood through blood vessels to reach parts of the body

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33
Q

What is the function of the blood

A

The blood transport respiratory gases, products of digestion, metabolic waste and hormones around the body

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34
Q

Where does the heart get its blood supply from?

A

Heart gets its supply from coronary arteries

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35
Q

What are the types of circulatory systems?

A
  1. Pulmonary circulation
  2. Systematic circulation
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36
Q

Describe pulmonary circulation

A
  • Deoxygenated blood in the right side of the heart is pumped to the lungs
  • Oxygenated blood returns to the left side of the heart
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37
Q

Describe systematic circulation

A
  • Oxygenated blood in the left side of the heart is pumped to tissues
  • Deoxygenated blood returns to the right side
38
Q

Why is having closed double circulatory systems important?

A
  • Prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood so blood pumped to the body is fully saturated with oxygen so there is efficient delivery of oxygen and glucose for respiration
  • Blood can be pumped at a higher pressure and substances can be removed from the body more efficiently
39
Q

Describe the coronary arteries

A

They deliver oxygenated blood to heart muscle/tissue

40
Q

Describe the blood vessels which enter and leave the heart

A
  1. Aorta - takes oxygenated blood from the heart to the respiring tissue
  2. Vena cava - takes deoxygenated blood from respiring tissue to the heart
41
Q

Describe the blood vessels which enter and leave the lungs

A
  1. Pulmonary artery - takes deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
  2. Pulmonary vein - takes oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
42
Q

Describe the blood vessels which enter and leave the kidneys

A
  1. Renal arteries - take deoxygenated blood to the kidneys
  2. Renal vein - take deoxygenated blood to the vena cava from the kidneys
43
Q

Describe how the structure of the heart is related to its function

A
  1. Atrioventricular valve - prevents backflow of blood from the ventricles to the atria
  2. Semi-lunar valve - prevents backflow of blood from arteries to ventricles
  3. The left side of the heart has a thick muscle wall to generate a high blood pressure for oxygenated blood as it has to travel a greater distance around the body
  4. The right side has a thin muscular wall that generates a lower blood pressure for deoxygenated blood to travel a small distance to the lungs where high pressure would damage alveoli
44
Q

Describe the structure of arteries and their function

A
  • They carry blood from the heart to the rest of the body at a high pressure
  • It has a thick smooth muscle layer that contracts and pushes blood along, it controls blood flow and pressure
  • It has an elastic tissue layer that stretches as ventricles contract under high pressure, it recoils as ventricles relax when under low pressure. This evens out blood pressure and maintains high blood pressure
  • A thick wall that withstands pressure and prevents bursting
  • Smooth endothelium that reduces friction
  • Narrow lumen that increases and maintains high blood pressure
45
Q

What kind of blood do arteries carry

A

Oxygenated blood

46
Q

Describe the structure of arterioles and their function

A
  • They are divisions of arteries to smaller vessels which direct blood to different capillaries
  • Thinner muscle layer than arteries, it contracts to reduce blood flow by narrowing the lumen, it relaxes to increase blood flow by enlarging the lumen
  • Thinner elastic layer as blood pressure surges
47
Q

Describe the structure of veins and their function

A
  • They carry blood back to the heart under low pressure
  • Wider lumen than arteries
  • Very little elastic and muscular tissue
  • Contain valves to stop the blood flowing backwards
48
Q

How is blood flow maintained in the veins?

A

Contraction of skeletal muscle squeezes veins which maintain blood flow

49
Q

What kind of blood do veins carry?

A

Deoxygenated blood except for pulmonary veins that carry oxygenated blood to the heart from the lungs

50
Q

Describe the structure of the capillaries and their function

A
  • They allow the efficient exchange of gases and nutrients between blood and tissue fluid
  • Capillary wall is one cell thick and made of endothelial cells to create a short diffusion pathway for rapid diffusion
  • Capillary bed is made of a large network of branched capillaries which are all thin to increase the surface area to volume ratio for rapid diffusion
  • They have a narrow lumen that reduces the flow rate so there is more time for diffusion and exchange
  • Capillaries permeate tissues to give a short diffusion pathway
  • They have pores in walls between cells to allow substances to escape
51
Q

How does blood flow in one direction

A
  • The valves only open one way
  • If there is high pressure behind a valve its forced open
  • If the pressure is higher at the front of the valve its forces shut
  • So blood flows in one direction
52
Q

Define tissue fluid

A

The fluid surrounding cells and tissues

53
Q

What is the function of tissue fluid

A
  • Provides respiring cells with water, oxygen, glucose and amino acids
  • It enables waste substances (urea, lactic acid, carbon dioxide) to move back into the blood
54
Q

How is tissue fluid formed

A
  1. Higher blood and hydrostatic pressure inside the capillaries due to the contraction of left ventricles than in the tissue fluid
  2. This forces the water out of the capillaries into spaces surrounding the cells
  3. Large plasma proteins remain in capillaries because they are too large to leave
55
Q

How does tissue fluid return to the circulatory system

A
  1. Hydrostatic pressure reduces as fluid leaves capillary
  2. Due to water loss, an increasing concentration of plasma proteins that are too large to leave the capillaries lower the water potential in the capillary below the water potential of the tissue fluid
  3. Water reenters the capillaries from the tissue fluid via osmosis down a water potential gradient
  4. Excess water is taken up by the lymph system and is returned to the circulatory system
56
Q

Describe what happens when there is an accumulation of tissue fluid due to protein

A
  1. It’s caused by a low concentration of protein in the blood plasma
  2. The water potential in the capillary is too high, so the water potential gradient is reduced
  3. There is more tissue fluid at the arteriole end
  4. Less/no water is absorbed into the blood capillary by osmosis
57
Q

Describe what happens when there is an accumulation of tissue fluid due to high blood pressure

A
  1. High blood pressure = high hydrostatic pressure
  2. This increases outward pressure in arteriole end of the capillary and decreases inward pressure at the venule end of the capillary
  3. So more tissue fluid is formed and less tissue is reabsorbed
  4. The lymph system isn’t able to drain tissue fluid fast enough
58
Q

Describe what occurs during diastole

A
  1. The atria and ventricles relax
  2. the pressure inside the atria increases
  3. the volume inside the atria increases
  4. the pressure inside the ventricles slowly increases
  5. the volume inside the ventricles slowly increases
  6. blood enters the atria via the vena cava and pulmonary vein
59
Q

Describe what occurs during atrial systole

A
  1. The atria contract decreasing volume and increasing pressure inside the atria
  2. Atrioventricular valves open
  3. Blood flows into the ventricles
60
Q

Describe what occurs during ventricular systole

A
  1. Ventricles contract decreasing volume and increasing pressure inside ventricles
  2. Semi-lunar valves open
  3. Atrioventricular valves shut
  4. Blood is pushed out of the heart into arteries
61
Q

Describe what heart valves do during atrial systole

A
  1. The semi-lunar valves close
  2. The atrioventricular valves open
  3. So blood can move out of the atrium into the ventricle
62
Q

Describe what heart valves do during ventricular systole

A
  1. Semi-lunar valves open
  2. Atrioventricular valves shut
  3. So blood moves out of the heart
63
Q

How do you calculate cardiac output?

A

Stroke volume x heart rate

64
Q

What does cardiac output calculate?

A

The volume of blood pumped out of the heart per minute

65
Q

How do you calculate heart rate?

A

Cardiac output / stroke volume

66
Q

What does stroke volume measure?

A

The volume of blood pumped by the ventricles in each heartbeat

67
Q

How do you calculate heart rate?

A

Cardiac output / stroke volume

68
Q

What does heart rate measure

A

Number of heartbeats per minute

69
Q

Describe the structure of haemoglobin

A
  • It is a large protein with a quaternary structure made of 2 alpha helixes and 2 beta-pleated sheets
  • It has a high affinity for oxygen, each carries 4 molecules of oxygen
  • It has a binocave shape that increases the surface area for rapid oxygen diffusion
70
Q

Describe ppO2 in the lungs

A
  • lungs have a high ppO2
  • haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen
  • haemoglobin readily loads oxygen
71
Q

Describe ppO2 in respiring tissue

A
  • In respiring tissue, at low ppO2, haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen so oxygen readily unloads at the respiring tissue
  • The high concentration of CO2 increases the rate of unloading
72
Q

Describe what happens at the dissociation curve graph at high ppO2

A
  • When ppO2 is high
  • Haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen so it will readily associate with it
  • So it has a high saturation of oxygen
73
Q

Describe what happens on the dissociation curve graph at low ppO2

A
  • When pO2 is low
  • Haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen
  • So it unloads oxygen rather than loading it
  • So it has a low saturation of oxygen
74
Q

Describe why the dissociation curve graph is S-shaped

A
  • S-shaped because of the cooperative nature of oxygen binding
  • Haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen as the first molecule associated with it
  • The shape of haemoglobin changes so that it is easier for the next molecule to bind to it
  • Now the haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen, so more oxygen molecules bind to it
  • It becomes more saturated, and the shape of the haemoglobin changes so that it is harder for other oxygen molecules to associate with it
  • That’s why at a high pO2 the rate of saturation decreases
75
Q

Define the Bohr effect

A

Haemoglobin unloads oxygen more readily at a high pCO2

76
Q

Describe the Bohr effect on pO2

A
  • During exercise, cells respire and produce CO2 increasing the pCO2
  • This increases the rate of oxygen unloading from haemoglobin, shifting the dissociation curve to the right
  • The saturation of blood with oxygen is lower than the pCO2 so more oxygen is unloaded
77
Q

What are the benefits of the Bohr effect?

A

Supplies respiring tissues with more oxygen for aerobic respiration

78
Q

How does the association between O2 and haemoglobin weaken during the Bohr effect?

A
  • Increased rate of respiration produces more CO2
  • CO2 dissolves in blood plasma to give a weak acid
  • Tertiary structure of haemoglobin changes slightly
  • Association gets weaker
79
Q

Describe what happens when the dissociation curve shifts to the left and how it is advantageous

A
  • Curve shifts to the left = haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen
  • More oxygen associates with haemoglobin at a lower pO2 but dissociates less readily
  • ADVANTAGE: good for organisms living in high altitudes or underground
80
Q

Describe what happens when the dissociation curve shifts to the right and how it is advantageous

A
  • Curve shifts to the right = haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen
  • Oxygen dissociates from haemoglobin more readily to respiring cells at a higher pO2 but associates less readily
  • ADVANTAGE: good for organisms with a fast rate or respiration or fast metabolic rate
81
Q

Define coronary heart disease

A

A type of cardiovascular disease, it occurs when the coronary arteries have lots of atheromas in them, which restricts blood flow to the heart muscle. It can lead to heart attacks.

82
Q

Define atheromas

A

It is the narrowing of the artery wall due to cholesterol buildup behind the artery wall reducing blood flow to the heart

83
Q

What blood vessel do atheromas occur in

A

Only arteries specifically coronary arteries

84
Q

Describe how atheromas form

A
  1. The wall of an artery is made of several layers, the endothelium is usually smooth and unbroken
  2. If damage occurs to the endothelium, white blood cells (macrophages) and lipids from the blood clump together under the lining to form fatty streaks
  3. Over time, more white blood cells, lipids and connective tissue build up and harden to form atheromas
85
Q

What do atheromas lead to

A

Heart attacks, aneurysms, thrombosis

86
Q

How do atheromas cause heart attacks?

A
  • Atheroma causes the narrowing of the coronary arteries
  • Restricting blood flow to the heart muscle supplying glucose and oxygen
  • The heart will respire anaerobically, producing less ATP so the heart muscle won’t have enough energy for muscle contraction
  • Lactate (lactic acid) is produced, damaging the tissue and muscle
87
Q

List the risk factors for cardiovascular disease

A
  1. High blood cholesterol
  2. Poor diet
  3. Cigarette smoking
  4. High blood pressure
  5. Genetic factors
88
Q

Describe high blood cholesterol as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease

A
  • If blood cholesterol is high, then the risk of cardiovascular disease is increased because cholesterol is the main component of the lipid that makes an atheroma
  • Atheromas can lead to high blood pressure and blood clots
  • These could block the flow of blood to the coronary arteries which can cause a heart attack
89
Q

Describe a bad diet as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease

A
  • A diet high in saturated fat is associated with high cholesterol levels
  • A diet high in salt increases the risk of CVD because it increases high blood pressure
90
Q

Describe cigarette smoking as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease

A
  • Nicotine and carbon monoxide increase the risk of CVD
  • Nicotine increases the blood pressure
  • Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin and reduces the amount of oxygen transported in the blood
  • So reduces the amount of O2 available to tissues
  • If the heart muscle doesn’t get enough oxygen it can lead to a heart attack
  • Smoking decreases the number of antioxidants in the blood that protect cells from damage, fewer of these means that cell damage in the coronary arteries is likely so atheromas will form
91
Q

Describe high blood pressure as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease

A
  • High blood pressure increases the risk of damage to artery walls
  • Damaged walls have a higher chance of antheroma formation which can cause blood clots
  • These can prevent the flow of blood to the heart muscle possible causing a heart attack
92
Q

What are some predispositions factors of cardiovascular disease

A
  • Genetic predispositions (inheritance of disease)
  • Having high blood pressure as a result of another disease

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