Marine protected areas

Question 1

Target 11: By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area- based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscape and seascape.
Convention on Biological Diversity Aichi Target 11 https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/rationale/target-11/

Answer 1

By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information
UN Sustainable Development Goal 14.5 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg14

Question 2

Agreement to “urgently increase the ocean area that is effectively and equitably managed in ecologically representative and well-connected systems of MPAs or other effective conservation measures. This network should target protection of both biodiversity and ecosystem services and should include at least 30% of each marine habitat. The ultimate aim is to create a fully sustainable ocean, at least 30% of which has no extractive activities”
IUCN World Parks Congress (Sydney, 2014)

Answer 2

Based on our review, we conclude the UN 10% target is too low and that the 2014 World Parks Congress call for ≥30% of the sea in highly protected MPAs is strongly supported by existing evidence
O’Leary et al. (2016) Effective coverage targets for ocean protection. Conservation Letters https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12247

Question 3

So how are we doing?
Official MPA Map
Source: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2019). Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) [On-line], October 2019, Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC. Available at www.protectedplanet.net
7.78% of the global ocean covered by protected areas 2.57% of the global ocean covered by no-take protected areas.

Answer 3

Currently 16,908 MPAs
These protect >28M km2 (7.8%) of the global ocean
That’s bigger than the land areas of the US, China and Canada combined
UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2019) Marine Protected Planet [On-line], [October, 2019], Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN Available at: www.protectedplanet.net

Question 4

Lubchenco & Grorud-Colvert (2015) Making waves: The science and politics of ocean protection. Science DOI: 10.1126/science.aad5443
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Area covered by MPAs in 2000 was ~2M km2 (0.7% of the ocean)
Coverage had reached 14M km2 by 2010 Coverage has doubled in the decade since
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Much of this growth is due to a small number of enormous MPAs
The 20 largest MPAs (0.1% of all MPAs) account for >60% of the total area of all MPAs
7 MPAs have areas >1M km2

Answer 4

Ross Sea Region MPA: 2.06M km2
Marae Moana: 1.98M km2
Réserve Naturelle Nationale des Terres australes françaises: 1.65M km2

Question 5

National v International Waters

Answer 5

200 nautical mile boundaries marking global Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) - waters under national jurisdiction
Flanders Marine Institute (2018). Maritime Boundaries Geodatabase, version 10. Available online at http://www.marineregions.org/ https://doi.org/10.14284/319

These 5 countries together account for 58% of all MPAs by area (16.4M km2) USA UK France Australia NZ
EEZ + Overseas Territories (km2)
Total area protected (km2)

Question 6

What are MPAs?
Why this push to increase coverage?
What can be done to increase their effectiveness? What are their limitations?
What should future priorities be?
 What are MPAs?

Answer 6

MPAs are areas of the sea set aside for long-term conservation aims
Various terms are used - e.g. MPA / MCZ / Marine Reserve / Marine Park
These can have specific meanings in certain contexts, but MPA is a useful general term
Different MPAs can have different levels of protection
We find it… useful to distinguish among “lightly protected” (some protection exists but significant extractive activity is allowed), “strongly protected” (all commercial activity prohibited, only light recreational and subsistence fishing allowed), and “fully protected” (no extractive activities allowed; also called “marine reserves”). The term “Marine Protected Area” (MPA) encompasses all three categories, among which ecological benefits vary greatly
Lubchenco & Grorud-Colvert (2015) Making waves: The science and politics of ocean protection. Science DOI: 10.1126/science.aad5443

Question 7

Why are MPAs so popular?

Answer 7

MPAs Work
Stopping fishing increases fish numbers and species richness
Biomass typically triples within reserves Density increases by ~40%
Large fish and groups such as sharks benefit particularly from protection
Fish communities from shallow reef habitats worldwide
Edgar et al. (2014) Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13022

Question 8

Five features of effective MPAs: NEOLI

Answer 8

No take 
Enforced 
Old
Large 
Isolated

Question 9

The importance of NEOLI

Answer 9

Reserves with 4 or 5 of these NEOLI features perform really well
Huge increases in fish biomass, large fish biomass, shark biomass, fish diversity observed within such MPAs

Question 10

Benefits Beyond MPAs

Answer 10

Creating a no-take MPA has immediate negative effects on local fisheries

Active movement of juvenile or adult fish (‘spillover’)
However, as fish populations increase within MPAs, some of this biomass is exported:

Both can increase fisheries yields close to MPAs
Passive export of eggs and larvae (‘recruitment subsidy’ - often also called ‘spillover’)

Question 11

Spillover

“Spillover is a common phenomenon occurring worldwide in MPAs where fish populations first recover inside the MPA boundaries”
Di Lorenzo et al. (2016) Journal for Nature Conservation https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2016.04.004

Answer 11

63 field studies conducted from 1994-2014 of 57 MPAs worldwide have considered spillover
80% of these document spillover occurring, typically up to ~1500m beyond the MPA boundary
This is likely an overestimate of prevalence given publication bias
Spillover more likely when MPAs are contiguous with similar habitat outside the MPA

Question 12

How Protected are MPAs?
https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/monster-trawler-spotted-off-south-coast-alarms-green-activists-dnm363rzn

https://www.countypress.co.uk/news/18003754.margiris-super-trawler-caught-operating- marine-conservation-zone-----greenpeace-calls-action/

The Margiris… spent significant time fishing in the Offshore Overfalls MCZ… While fishing in the Channel, its average catch per day was 68 tonnes of mackerel and two tonnes of pilchards, meaning the Margiris has caught a total of 1,610 tonnes of fish in UK waters.
Isle of Wight County Press https://www.countypress.co.uk/news/ 18003754.margiris-super-trawler-caught-operating-marine-conservation- zone—–greenpeace-calls-action/

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ attachment_data/file/492445/mcz-offshore-overfalls-boundary-map.pdf

Offshore Overfalls MCZ is an offshore site located roughly 18km east of the southern part of the Isle of Wight. The site covers an area of 594 km2… This site protects areas of sandy seabed… [it] also includes the second largest area of seabed mixed sediments in the region…In the north west corner of the site is an area called the ‘Overfalls’ which has been highlighted as an area of high scientific value due to the unusual area of mixed sediments, sands and gravels that form sandwaves…
Offshore Overfalls MCZ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/492449/mcz- offshore-overfalls-factsheet.pdf

Answer 12

Now that this site has been designated, some activities may need additional management. Activities and the management measures used to regulate them may need to change if new evidence becomes available.
Most marine activity is already regulated by the relevant regulatory bodies. There are existing byelaws, national laws and European Regulations which regulators use to manage fishing, recreation and pollution. These also apply in MCZs.
Offshore Overfalls MCZ https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/492449/mcz- offshore-overfalls-factsheet.pdf

“Our government speaks well about ocean protection, but these are empty words until it takes serious action to replace the broken network of paper parks, which allow super-trawlers like Margiris to fish in supposedly protected areas right on our doorstep,” said Greenpeace UK oceans campaigner, Chris Thorne.
Isle of Wight County Press https://www.countypress.co.uk/news/ 18003754.margiris-super-trawler-caught-operating-marine-conservation- zone—–greenpeace-calls-action/

Dureuil et al. (2018) Science https://science.sciencemag.org/content/362/6421/1403

Question 13

Trawling in European MPAs

Answer 13

MPAs with highest trawling intensity are typically newly- designated, and in lower IUCN protection categories
No trawling was detected in 295 of 727 (41%) MPAs considered
“These data demonstrate that simply designating areas as MPAs has little benefit for those species that require protection the most… Our results suggest that much of the EU’s spatially impressive MPA network is being affected more heavily than nonprotected areas by industrial fishing and, as such, provides a false sense of security about positive conservation actions being taken.”
Dureuil et al. (2018) Elevated trawling inside protected areas undermines conservation outcomes in a global fishing hot spot
Science https://science.sciencemag.org/content/362/6421/1403

Question 14

Designation ≠ Protection

Answer 14

Edgar et al. (2014) showed that MPAs need 4-5 NEOLI characteristics to be really effective
MPAs with 1-2 NEOLI characteristics were indistinguishable from unprotected sites
Of 87 MPAs investigated, 9 (10%) had 4-5 characteristics, 73 (84%) had 1-2 characteristics
Most MPAs are probably not very effective at achieving conservation objectives
Agardy et al. (2016) Aquatic Conservation https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2675

Question 15

Dangerous Targets

Answer 15

Rushed establishment of MPAs alienates key user groups Weak protections lead to paper parks
Establishing MPAs where they are not needed diverts energy and resources from where they are

Targets become ceilings

Agardy et al. (2016) Aquatic Conservation https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.2675
‘Easy wins’ are prioritised (e.g. large, remote, essentially unmanaged MPAs) to meet areal targets

Question 16

Why aren’t more MPAs more effective?

Answer 16

The ‘N’ and ‘E’ of NEOLI require significant capacity to implement
In fact, the strongest predictors of MPA conservation impact are staff and budget capacity
MPAs with adequate staff capacity have ecological effects almost 3x greater than those with inadequate capacity

“…continued global expansion of MPAs without adequate investment in human and financial capacity is likely to lead to sub-optimal conservation outcomes”

Gill et al. (2017) Capacity shorfalls hinder the performance of marine protected areas globally. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/nature21708

Question 17

Are we protecting the right places?

Gownaris et al. (2019) Front. Mar. Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00650

Gap Analysis of the Global MPA network

Answer 17

Collate information on priority areas identified by a range of UN and NGO initiatives
Map the number of initiatives identifying each area as ‘important’ (lots of initiatives = highly important)
Overlay this with curent MPA distribution
Gownaris et al. (2019) Front. Mar. Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00650

Gownaris et al. (2019) Front. Mar. Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00650

Question 18

Gaps in MPA Coverage

Gownaris et al. (2019) Front. Mar. Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00650
Especially important areas (5-7 initiatives) are almost all within MPAs, but no-take status often unreported

Answer 18

> 14% of the ocean is identified as of conservation importance by two to four initiatives
Only around 12% of this area is currently protected
Important areas without protection occur in the Caribbean Sea, Madagascar and the southern tip of Africa, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Coral Triangle

Question 19

Are we protecting the right areas?

From Gownaris et al. (2019): 1.7% of global ocean is both ‘important’ and in MPA
From UNEP-WCMC & IUCN: 7.8% of global ocean is protected
So: 78% of current MPAs are not in areas that are considered globally important for marine conservation
“We should not continue applauding countries that are simply drawing a line around relatively empty waters where protections are neither essential nor most effective to meet a target. Instead we need to do the harder work of safeguarding the most threatened regions of the ocean — the coastlines — even if they’re smaller.”
Luiz. A Rocha (2018) Bigger is not better for ocean conservation The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/20/opinion/ environment-ocean-conservation.html

Answer 19

“By setting aside large protected areas in parts of the ocean that are not heavily fished, countries have shrugged off their international obligation to pursue science-based conservation and protect places where threatened species spawn or feed. Instead, they have given the public a false sense of accomplishment… This ‘just add water’ approach to marine protection is a flawed recipe for conservation that is failing to protect the areas of our oceans that require our immediate attention.”

Luiz. A Rocha (2018) Bigger is not better for ocean conservation The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/20/opinion/ environment-ocean-conservation.html

Question 20

How can we prioritise?

Hotspot analysis identifies areas with highest proportion of threatened and endemic species

Sharks, rays and chimeras a good case study - they are IUCN assessed, have a high proportion of threatened species, and are found throughout oceans
Davidson & Dulvy (2017) Nature Ecology & Evolution https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-016-0040

Answer 20

Expanding the MPA network by just 3% in 70 nations would cover half of the geographic range of 99 imperilled endemic sharks, rays and chimeras

Question 21

Consequences MPAs Planning

Answer 21

Just 12 nations harbour more than half (53) of the imperilled endemic sharks, rays and chimeras
Davidson & Dulvy (2017) Nature Ecology & Evolution https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-016-0040

Davidson & Dulvy (2017) Nature Ecology & Evolution https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-016-0040

Question 22

Protecting the High Seas - a real ‘Easy Win’?
High Seas fisheries

Most fishing is by small coastal boats within EEZs
High seas account for 4.2% of annual marine capture fisheries (~4.3Mt/y)
Antarctic toothfish is the only species caught exclusively on the high seas: - 3,700t annually (0.11% total high seas catch)
Tunas (primarily skipjack, yellowfin, and bigeye) account for 61% of annual high seas catch

Answer 22

China and Taiwan account for 1/3 of total high seas catch
High Seas fisheries
High seas catches do not account for >1/3 annual landings for any country apart from Taiwan and Ecuador
“…the high seas catch contributes less than 3% to the global seafood supply, and the vast majority of the marine life caught on the high seas is destined for upscale markets in food-secure countries. On the basis of the available data, high seas fisheries do not make a direct or crucial contribution to global food security.”
Schiller et al. (2018) Science Advances https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/8/eaat8351

Question 23

Benefits of Closing the High Seas to Fishing

Answer 23

Most ‘High Seas’ species also ‘straddle’ EEZs (e.g. all tunas)
Protecting the High Seas may therefore boost stocks available to fish in EEZs
An 18% increase within EEZs of stocks that straddle EEZs & High Seas is enough to offset fisheries losses
It would also decrease inequality in access to fisheries resources
“…closing the high seas could be catch-neutral while inequality in the distribution of fisheries benefits among the world’s maritime countries could be reduced by 50%”
Sumaila et al. (2015) Scientific Reports https://doi.org/10.1038/srep08481

Question 24

Future-Proofing MPAs
MPAs and Climate Change

MPAs are premised on protecting particular areas of the ocean
Even when MPAs are positioned according to rigorous prioritisation tools, they typically only consider current conditions
The oceans are changing - how will climate change impact the effectiveness of MPAs?

Answer 24

MPAs may help to promote resilience and adaptation to climate change by marine populations

However, existing MPAs are warming as fast as the rest of the oceans

Community thermal safety margins will be exceeded by 2050 for many tropical MPAs and by 2150 in higher- latitide MPAs

“Although MPAs are widely promoted as a means to mitigate the effects of climate change, the opposite perspective is more in line with the scientific reality: without drastic reductions in carbon emissions, ocean warming, acidification and oxygen depletion in the twenty-first century will in all likelihood disrupt the composition and functioning of the ecosystems currently protected within the world’s MPAs.”

Bruno et al. (2018) Climate change threatens the world’s marine protected areas Nature Climate Change https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0149-2