Magna

Question 1

Working vs. Short-term Memory

Answer 1

Working memory and short-term memory are distinct executive functions. While both involve a limited and temporary store, working memory involves the manipulation and processing of information while short-term memory does not.

Question 2

Central Executive

Answer 2

Central executive, which regulates attention and task switching, and three subsystems, which are controlled by the central executive.

Question 3

Visuospatial sketchpad

Answer 3

The visuospatial sketchpad is employed when manipulating visual and/or spatial information (eg, reading a map).

Question 4

Phonological Loop

Answer 4

The phonological loop is employed when manipulating spoken and written information (eg, reading a book).

Question 5

Episodic Buffer

Answer 5

The episodic buffer is responsible for temporal processing (understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from long-term memory into working memory (eg, remembering how to multiply when figuring out a tip at a restaurant).

Question 6

Phi Phenomenon

Answer 6

The phi phenomenon (also known as the motion picture effect) is an optical illusion in which a series of still photographs presented in rapid succession appear to be moving. The phi phenomenon may have been relevant to perceiving motion during the simulation but is irrelevant to depth perception.

Question 7

Motion Parallax

Answer 7

Motion parallax (or relative motion) is a monocular cue whereby objects in the foreground are perceived as moving faster than objects in the background. Motion parallax is a perceptual process that would not require three-dimensional depth but would still allow subjects to perceive both depth and motion.

Question 8

Convergence

Answer 8

Convergence is the extent to which the eyes turn inward (converge) to focus on an object; closer objects require more convergence, which helps the brain infer distance. The two-dimensional simulation made the use of binocular cues irrelevant, and neither convergence nor retinal disparity is involved with motion perception.

Question 9

Retinal Disparity

Answer 9

Retinal disparity occurs because each eye transmits a slightly different image to the brain, which infers distance from the disparity

Question 10

Speech Shadowing

Answer 10

Speech shadowing is a selective attention (not multitasking) process used in dichotic listening tasks (competing information presented in each ear) that involves repeating information presented in one ear while tuning out the competing information in the other ear.

Question 11

Interference

Answer 11

Interference is a memory (not attention) process describing when old information prevents recollection of new information (proactive interference) or new information prevents the recollection of old information (retroactive interference).

Question 12

The Cocktail party Effect

Answer 12

The cocktail party effect describes when attention quickly shifts from an attended stimulus to an unattended stimulus when something significant occurs.

Question 13

Inertia

Answer 13

An object’s inertia is its resistance to changes in its velocity; objects tend to stay in motion or stay at rest.

Question 14

Mechanical Advantage

Answer 14

Mechanical advantage is the ratio of the output force Fo to the input force Fi:
and it can be obtained from Work from F1d1 = F0d0

Question 15

Thermodynamics and Kinetics

Answer 15

Thermodynamics determines whether a reaction can proceed without energy input, and kinetics determines how quickly a reaction proceeds.

Question 16

Why is oxygen intake elevated after exercise?

Answer 16

Oxygen intake remains elevated after exercise due to the increased demand in muscle cells for oxygen to replenish ATP, creatine phosphate, and glycogen stores and restock myoglobin with oxygen.

Question 17

Titration Hacks

Answer 17

In a titration, a measured amount of a solution with a known concentration (titrant) is added to another solution containing an unknown concentration of the compound to be measured (analyte). In acid-base titrations, an acid is titrated with a base (or vice versa). The resulting acid-base neutralization reaction produces a change in pH, which is monitored by a pH indicator that signals the equivalence point of the neutralization.

The analyte must be fully dissolved before it can be measured. Sebacic acid has low solubility in water due to a high nonpolar hydrocarbon character. A base will convert the carboxylic acid groups into highly polar ionic salts with much higher aqueous solubility.

Once dissolved, the carboxylate ions can then be titrated with an acid. Subtracting the number of moles of base (such as KOH) in the initial solution from the number of moles of acid (such as HCl) required to reach the equivalence point during the titration will give the number of moles of carboxylate groups from sebacic acid in the sample.

Question 18

Nernst Equation

Answer 18

A concentration cell employs the same electrode material and ionic solution for both the cathode and the anode, but the ion solutions surrounding the anode and cathode differ in concentration. As a result, the same half-reaction occurs at both electrodes, but it occurs as an oxidation at one and as a reduction (in the reverse direction) at the other. Accordingly, adding the two half-reactions yields a result of E° = 0.00 V. The electrons will migrate from the cell with fewer cations to the cell with more cations until the cation concentration in each cell is equal. Because oxidation occurs at the anode, this is the source of electrons for the cell, which are transferred to the cathode where reduction occurs.

Question 19

Tonic Stimulus response

Answer 19

Tonic receptors are sensory receptors that continue to produce action potentials throughout the duration of a stimulus. Tonic receptors are limited to the peripheral nervous system and are not found in the brain.

Question 20

State-dependent memory

Answer 20

State-dependent memory is a phenomenon whereby memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual’s internal state at the time of retrieval is the same as when the memory was encoded. For example, memories encoded while an individual is intoxicated are less easily recalled when sober than when intoxicated at a later time.

Question 21

Sensory adaptation

Answer 21

Sensory adaptation (or neural adaptation) is a decreased responsiveness of a sensory neuron over time in response to a constant stimulus.

Question 22

Long-term potentiation

Answer 22

Long-term potentiation (LTP) describes an enduring increase in synaptic transmission of neurons, which is the neural foundation for learning and memory consolidation. When neurons are repeatedly stimulated, they demonstrate an increased firing rate, known as LTP. The increase in magnitude of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) in the postsynaptic neurons in the experimental condition (Figure 1) reflects LTP.

Question 23

Neuroplasticity

Answer 23

Neuroplasticity (or neural plasticity) refers to lasting changes in the brain that occur when interactions with the environment alter neurons and/or pathways. Neuroplasticity refers to both increases in neuronal connections, known as potentiation, and decreases in neuronal responses, known as depression. Neuroplasticity is highest during early development but continues throughout our lifetime.

Question 24

Synaptic vs. Structural plasticity

Answer 24

Synaptic plasticity results from changes in the firing rate of the presynaptic neuron, which alters the amount of neurotransmitter released into the synaptic cleft and the number of receptors on the postsynaptic target. Synaptic changes are associated with both immediate and more delayed potentiation or depression.

At the structural level, sprouting (increased connections between neurons), rerouting (new connections between neurons), and pruning (decreased connections between neurons) contribute to structural plasticity. Structural plasticity does not happen quickly, so it is not responsible for immediate changes

Question 25

Group identification

Answer 25

Group identification refers to the extent to which an individual perceives himself or herself as a member of a larger collective. For example, identifying as a “pre-med student” associates an individual with a larger group of people who are studying for the MCAT and applying to medical school.

Question 26

Social Identity

Answer 26

Social identity describes how one’s self-concept (ideas and beliefs about the self) is shaped by group membership. The major social identities are sex/gender, sexuality, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, family status (eg, married, parent), and occupation. Social identities define individuals in relation to others and allow for social groupings.

Question 27

Social constructionism

Answer 27

Social constructionism is a sociological theory suggesting that “reality” is created through interactions, resulting in an agreed-on shared meaning. Objects (eg, money) and behaviors (eg, a handshake) have meaning only because individuals in society have agreed on that meaning. Money has value in society because everyone has agreed that it has value, thereby making money a social construct.

Question 28

Symbolic interactionism

Answer 28

Symbolic interactionism is a micro-sociological approach emphasizing language and symbols and the subjective meanings attached to them. This theory focuses on the small daily interactions that take place between people and how these serve as the building blocks for society.

Question 29

Rational choice theory

Answer 29

Rational choice theory is a micro-sociological approach suggesting that humans behave in ways that maximize personal gain and minimize personal loss.

Question 30

Structural Functionalism

Answer 30

Structural functionalism is a macro-sociological approach emphasizing the ways that social structures work together to maintain equilibrium in society.

Question 31

Sexual orientation

Answer 31

Sociologists define sexual orientation as a comparison between one’s own sex category and the sex category to which one is attracted and with which one is physically intimate.

Question 32

Content analysis

Answer 32

The analysis and coding of social media text is an example of a content analysis, which involves the systematic coding and interpretation of human communication (eg, website content, organizational literature, oral transcripts) for research. Content analyses turn qualitative (non-numeric) visual or textual information into quantitative (numeric) data for analysis.

Question 33

Series vs. Parallel circuits

Answer 33

For example, series circuits position electrical components in succession and form a single channel through which a fixed quantity of current passes. In contrast, parallel circuits position circuit components side by side and have multiple channels through which current can flow. These differences alter the behavior of circuit components.

Question 34

Conductivity

Answer 34

Conductivity describes the ease with which electric current flows through a material. The conductivity of metals may be attributed to the loosely associated valence electrons within a metal whereas the conductivity of electrolytic solutions is directly proportional to the molar concentration of charged ions.

Question 35

Western Blot Steps

Answer 35

A western blot is a technique used to detect the presence of a specific protein and to compare its relative abundance in one set of conditions to that obtained under other conditions. It is performed in the following steps:

1. Samples containing the protein of interest are loaded onto a gel and subjected to electrophoresis, causing the protein to migrate through the gel. In this case, the protein of interest is BAZ2B, which must be present in the gel for detection to occur (Choice A).
2. Proteins in the gel are transferred to a protein-binding membrane such as nitrocellulose, where they become immobilized (Choice B). Transfer is usually carried out by electrophoresis.
3. The portions of the membrane to which protein was not transferred are blocked by protein-rich mixtures such as bovine serum albumin (BSA) or low-fat milk. This prevents antibodies, which are themselves proteins, from nonspecifically binding to the nitrocellulose in the next step (Choice C).
4. The membrane is incubated with antibodies that specifically bind the protein of interest. These antibodies may be labeled with a marker and detected directly, but more commonly they are subjected to a labeled secondary antibody that specifically binds the first (primary) antibody. Use of secondary antibodies helps improve detection.
5. Antibodies are detected by techniques such as fluorescence or chemiluminescence.

In this case, the protein of interest is BAZ2B. Therefore, the primary antibodies must be specific to BAZ2B, not H3, to detect the amount of BAZ2B that was bound by the affinity column.

Question 36

Naming of stereocenters

Answer 36

Stereocenters are designated as having R or S configurations based on the arrangement of their substituents and the priority ranking of each. Carbohydrates with multiple stereocenters are given an L or D designation based on the configuration of the highest-numbered stereocenter. Almost all carbohydrates found in nature are in the D configuration.

Question 37

Bone Marrow

Answer 37

The bone marrow is a soft, spongy tissue that lines the inside of bones and gives rise to most cells involved in the immune response. Cells originating in the bone marrow begin as multipotential hematopoietic stem cells and can differentiate into lymphoid or myeloid progenitor cells.

1. Lymphoid progenitor cells go on to become B cells, T cells, and natural-killer (NK) cells.
2. Myeloid progenitor cells in the bone marrow further differentiate into erythrocytes, platelet-producing megakaryocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, monocytes, or mast cells.

The passage states that LFA-1 is located on the surface of leukocytes (white blood cells). Leukocytes include lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and monocytes. All of the aforementioned cells originate in the bone marrow. Therefore, cells expressing LFA-1 on their surface originate from the bone marrow and not from the spleen, thymus, or lymph nodes.

Question 38

Reduction Selectivity

Answer 38

Reduction of a functional group results in a gain of electrons from the transfer of a hydride, a decreased oxidation state of carbon, and a decreased number of C–O bonds. Several reagents can be used to reduce a functional group, including borane (BH3) and NaBH4. These reducing agents transfer one or more hydrides to the carbon atom being reduced. BH3 reacts most readily with carboxylic acid carbonyl groups and therefore will selectively reduce carboxylic acids. As a result, the intermediate aldehyde will be further reduced to a primary alcohol. NaBH4 reduces the reactive carbonyls—ketones and aldehydes—and will not reduce the less reactive esters and carboxylic acids.

Question 39

Nucleophilicity and Basicity

Answer 39

When comparing the nucleophilicity of atoms of equal negative charge, nucleophilicity tends to increase from right to left across a row of the periodic table as electronegativity decreases. Atoms of higher electronegativity more effectively stabilize negative charge and less readily donate electron density to electrophiles whereas those of lower electronegativity stabilize a negative charge less effectively and more readily donate electrons to electrophiles.

Question 40

Availability Heuristic

Answer 40

The availability heuristic is the tendency to believe that if something is easily recalled from memory, it must be common or likely (eg, if several relatives have been diagnosed with lung cancer, an individual might inaccurately assume that lung cancer is the most common type of cancer).

Question 41

Feature detectors

Answer 41

Feature detection involves the perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus via feature detectors. Feature detectors are specific neurons that preferentially fire in response to very specific stimuli.

Question 42

Spreading activation

Answer 42

Spreading activation occurs when a node (ie, concept) within an individual’s semantic network (a uniquely organized cognitive web of information) triggers the activation of other, related nodes, a process known as priming.

Question 43

Confounding variables

Answer 43

Confounding variables are uncontrolled variables that have an effect on the independent and/or dependent variable.

Question 44

Racialization

Answer 44

Racialization is the process by which one group designates another group with a racial identity, often based on shared group qualities, such as physical attributes (eg, skin pigmentation) or behaviors (eg, religious practices).

Question 45

Habituation

Answer 45

Habituation is characterized by a decrease in a response after repeated exposure to a stimulus. For example, a nurse might initially notice the beeping (stimulus) from medical monitors but notice the beeping less over time (diminished response).

Question 46

Dishabituation

Answer 46

Dishabituation occurs when a previously habituated stimulus produces a response again. For example, a nurse returns from vacation to find that beeping from the medical monitors, which he/she had learned to ignore before vacation (ie, previously habituated stimulus), is noticeable once again (ie, renewed response).

Question 47

Sensitization

Answer 47

Increased response to a stimulus over time (eg, sweater’s scratchiness becomes more irritating until it is unbearable)

Question 48

Desensitization

Answer 48

Decreased response to a previously sensitized stimulus over time (eg, irritation from previously unbearable scratchiness diminishes over time)

Question 49

Conformational Isomers

Answer 49

Conformational isomers are versions of the same molecule that form when an atom rotates about its bond. Because these isomers are the same compound, they cannot have different specific rotations.

Question 50

Diastereomers

Answer 50

Diastereomers differ in the magnitude of their specific rotations (and may differ in direction), whereas enantiomers have specific rotations of the same magnitude but opposite direction.

Question 51

Mass Spectrometer

Answer 51

Mass spectrometry is a technique that measures the molecular weight of a molecule. Molecules in a sample are injected into a mass spectrometer, where they are bombarded with a beam of electrons. This beam removes electrons from the molecule and forms a positively charged ion known as the molecular ion. The molecular ion can also fragment during bombardment to form smaller ions.

An electric field accelerates the ions toward a magnet, which deflects them according to mass. The strength of the magnetic field is gradually changed during the experiment, and each field strength causes ions of a specific mass to reach the detector while all others are deflected into the walls of the tube. The ions are detected, and a mass spectrum is generated. The y-axis of the mass spectrum represents the ion mass abundance, and the x-axis represents the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z). The mass spectrum can be used to identify the mass of a molecule’s fragments by taking the m/z difference between peaks.

Samples analyzed by mass spectrometry are ionized and fragmented before detection. Therefore, the peaks observed in the mass spectrum represent ionized fragments of the sample.

Mass spectrometry is a technique that measures the molecular weight of a molecule. Molecules in a sample are bombarded with a beam of electrons, producing positively charged ions and fragments of the molecule. The ionized fragments are detected and a mass spectrum is generated, with the y-axis representing ion abundance and the x-axis representing the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z).

Question 52

Spherical Abberation

Answer 52

Spherical aberration refers to the optical deficiencies of lenses with perfectly spherical surfaces. The surfaces of the cornea or lens are not perfectly spherical, so no spherical aberration occurs.

Question 53

Rate Law and Enzymatic Reactions

Answer 53

Enzymatic reactions are typically zero-order or first-order reactions. In zero-order reactions the rate is only dependent on the rate constant because substrate concentrations exceed the Km. First-order reactions depend on substrate concentration and occur when the Km is greater than the substrate concentration.

Question 54

Rate Law and Enzymatic Reactions

Answer 54

Enzymatic reactions are typically zero-order or first-order reactions. In zero-order reactions the rate is only dependent on the rate constant because substrate concentrations exceed the Km. First-order reactions depend on substrate concentration and occur when the Km is greater than the substrate concentration.

Question 55

Tissue and Connective Tissue

Answer 55

The body consists of four types of tissue: epithelial, muscle, connective, and nervous tissue. Connective tissue provides protection and support for organs. Types of connective tissue include bone, blood, and adipose tissue.

Question 56

Gabriel Synthesis

Answer 56

The Gabriel synthesis is a method that uses potassium phthalimide and diethyl bromomalonate as starting materials to synthesize amino acids.

Question 57

Strecker Synthesis

Answer 57

Cyanide, aldehyde, and ammonia

Question 58

Amide and Reactivity (LActam and carboxylic acid derivative stability)

Answer 58

Amides are more stable and less reactive than esters because they contain an electron donating nitrogen atom. Therefore, amides require harsh conditions (strong acid or strong base and heat) to undergo hydrolysis.

Question 59

Agape

Answer 59

Agape is not a type of happiness but LOVE. It is one of the six forms of love and it focuses on unconditional love that persists regardless of conditions or circumstances.

Question 60

Hedonic happiness

Answer 60

Hedonic happiness focuses on living life in the moment, such as enjoying material things acquired, good food, or money. It is short-term and fleeting.

Question 61

Eudaimonic Happiness

Answer 61

It is a type of happiness that derives from leading a good and virtuous life, doing worthy activities, and experiencing a sense of life purpose. Eudaimonic happiness has been found to be correlated to good physical and mental health.

Question 62

Matrifocal

Answer 62

In matrifocal societies, women hold a pre-eminent place in kinship structures. This can involve having households with people from different generations that are linked by blood to the mother and passing on family’s propriety to the women in the family. Matrifocality does not imply that the decision-making and the power is held by women. It simply regulates where and who should cohabit and how the family structure should be organized, being the anchor point a woman.

Question 63

Means-end analysis

Answer 63

Means-end analysis is a problem-solving technique that involves determining the goal (end) and the steps (means) to achieve it. Whenever each step is achieved, a reevaluation of end and means is performed.

Question 64

Incubation Problem solving technqiue

Answer 64

Incubation is a problem-solving technique that involves stepping back from the problem and focusing on other activities. This technique allows the problem solver to adopt a different perspective on the problem or have an insight come about.

Question 65

Herbert Spencer Understandings

Answer 65

Herbert Spencer used the term superorganism to explain how societies evolved in a way that was not similar to an organism. He understood the interaction between humans as essential to forming structures that have their own organizational forms, and which can adapt to changing circumstances. This, for Herbert Spencer, was a way to better understand the division between nature and culture.

Question 66

Talcott Parson’s Gloss

Answer 66

Gloss is a sociological, rather than a psychological construct. It was used by Talcott Parsons to describe the mind constructs reality, “filtering” information unconsciously due to cultural pressures like language, personal experience, and beliefs.

Question 67

Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy

Answer 67

Bloom’s taxonomy is a concept named after the American educational psychologist Benjamin Samuel Bloom. It is used to assess whether educational objectives fit into the categories of cognitive, affective, or psychomotor. It is unrelated to the theory described in the question stem.

Question 68

Metacognition

Answer 68

Metacognition describes how humans are able to observe their own minds at work. Metacognition helps us understand learning processes and evaluate the extent to which a new concept is successfully comprehended and stored. It is unrelated to the theory described in the question stem.

Question 69

Donald Broadbent’s Attention Filter Theory

Answer 69

Donald Broadbent’s outdated attention filter theory is a model in which attention is regarded as a sustained focus of cognitive resources on a task that filters off extraneous stimuli. Only the information that is filtered in or targeted would be further processed, interpreted, recognized, and stored in memory. The remainder would be discarded.

Question 70

Rods vs. Cones

Answer 70

Rods are sensory visual receptors that exist in the retina along with cones. These cells are bigger than cones and are concentrated at the periphery of the human retina but absent in the fovea centralis (the center). They are thought to be responsible for low light intensity vision, i.e., night or scotopic vision.

Day vision and color vision are enabled by sensory visual photoreceptors called cones. These cells are thought to be responsible for color vision, day vision, and visual acuity, that is, high light level or photopic vision. They exist in greatest density in the fovea centralis (the center) of the human retina.

Question 71

Voxel-based morphometry

Answer 71

Voxel-based morphometry is a neuroimaging method for looking at brain anatomy. Therefore a study using this technique would involve the study of the brain.

Question 72

Contact Hypothesis

Answer 72

According to the contact hypothesis, one strategy for dealing with prejudice is to bring people of different groups together. Through this, they are expected to learn to appreciate each other in terms of shared experiences and uniqueness, rather than group membership.

Question 73

Authoritarian Personality

Answer 73

Authoritarian personality patterns are characterized by holding a propensity for order, power, hierarchy, and status. Those with authoritarian personalities tend to ask for unquestioned obedience from others.

Question 74

Proletarian Drift

Answer 74

Although proletarian drift describes the same process, this term was not used by Simmel to describe what was happening in the fashion industry, namely, the tendency of upscale products to become popular with the lower classes.

Question 75

Trickle-down Effect

Answer 75

Simmel understood the fashion consumption of lower-class people as an attempt at upward social mobility. Lower-class people adopt the tastes of higher-class people, which in return renders certain products undesirable for the upper classes. This effect is named the trickle-down effect, referring to Thorstein Veblen’s theory about markets. He claimed that markets operate by making consumer goods available at a price point that initially only people from higher classes can afford. Lower classes begin to purchase those products when they are produced in larger quantities and are therefore more affordable.

Question 76

Catatonic behavior

Answer 76

Catatonic behavior is a positive symptom. People diagnosed with schizophrenia often show changes in muscle tone or activity to the point of sometimes not moving at all (catatonic stupor) or being physically and excessively aggressive toward the self and others (catatonic excitement). This characteristic is not present in the general “normal” population.

Question 77

Avolition

Answer 77

Avolition amounts to the overall lack of drive to perform activities and pursue objectives. For example, people with this symptom may not have the will to run errands or perform a task, even when those tasks will bring obvious advantages to their lives (e.g., cooking).

Question 78

Ego-depletion Theory

Answer 78

Ego depletion refers to the capacity to self-regulate or control oneself when prior energies and resources have been reduced.

Question 79

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Answer 79

The facial feedback hypothesis maintains that there is a bidirectional relationship between individuals’ emotions and their facial expressions. In other words, people’s facial expressions reflect their internal emotional states. However, facial expressions can also trigger emotional states. This bidirectional process is thought to occur simultaneously, in a biofeedback manner, where facial expressions of emotions intensify the subjective experience of emotions, which in turn increase the tendency to facially express it, and so forth, in a continuous loop.

Question 80

Macrosociology

Answer 80

Macrosociology is concerned with the study of global, cross-cultural phenomena. It often takes a longitudinal, historical, and comparative approach to a topic with social relevance and gathers evidence from multiple social groups to derive its conclusions.

Question 81

Endowment Effect

Answer 81

Endowment effect does not amount to a methodological limitation. Instead, it amounts to the hypothesis that people ascribe more value to the things they own than to the things they do not possess.

Question 82

Stigma

Answer 82

Stigma amounts to the assignment of one or more negative attributes to a person, simply due to that person’s social group memberships, and consequent social exclusion or rejection. This process is thought to have been originally described by Erving Goffman in 1963, who defined stigma as “the situation of the individual who is disqualified from full social acceptance” for a deeply “discrediting attribute.” The stigmatized person ends up internalizing his or her failure to conform to the social norm that others have identified as his/her shortcoming.

Question 83

Herd behavior

Answer 83

Herd behavior describes how individuals in a group, in the absence of a central authority, sometimes act and think by following on neighbors’ behaviors and thoughts, thus appearing to be following orders.

Question 84

Collective Unconscious

Answer 84

Collective unconscious is a psychological term used by Carl Jung to describe the unconscious mind that is supposedly transmitted along generations and shared by different individuals.

Question 85

Groupthink

Answer 85

Groupthink refers to how group members’ desire for group harmony and lack of conflict can become so strong that they conform to the group’s decisions without evaluating critically their own and the group’s decisions.

Question 86

Collective Identity

Answer 86

Collective identity refers to a historical, jointly created, and collectively shared definition of a group’s attributes, values, and beliefs. Group members are aware of and tend to identify themselves with this identity.

Question 87

What is a taboo?

Answer 87

Taboos are norms about actions that cannot be performed by ordinary people, being either too sacred or too dangerous. Taboos exist in every culture in different forms, acting as (usually ancestral) culturally transmitted social control systems. People are often unaware of the taboo they are abiding by, yet they feel compelled as a social group to avoid acting in certain ways or discussing certain topics. Sigmund Freud explored taboos extensively, principally incest. Both more primitive and more civilized societies avoid incestuous sexual relations. The mere thought of incest normally provokes immediate feelings of revulsion and anger. The violation of this prohibition is commonly censured and severely punished by the whole society. It does not increase self-awareness and social facilitation.

Question 88

Priming Process

Answer 88

Priming amounts to the pre-activation of specific concepts in memory and is known to affect subsequent behaviors in a priming-congruent manner. Its effects can last about 24h, and it can or not involve subliminal stimuli (i.e., stimuli that are presented below the threshold of attention and conscious recognition). This research design involves the subliminal manipulation of the independent variable via priming procedures.

Question 89

Social-desirability Bias

Answer 89

The social desirability bias refers to people’s tendency to exaggerate, distort, fake, or lie while answering questions, most often in surveys and interviews. Double-blind designs are not used to prevent social desirability. This experiment also did not involve any questioning and answering.

Question 90

Double-blind designs Purpose

Answer 90

Double-blind designs involve concealing from both the researchers/ doctor and research participants which participants did and which did not receive the therapeutic drug or intervention. Both researchers and participants are “blind” to the operations. If this procedure is not used, confirmatory expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies may, and have been shown to bias results.

Question 91

Modernization

Answer 91

Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies. Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a ‘pre-modern’ or ‘traditional’ to a ‘modern’ society.

Question 92

How to Explain Modernization

Answer 92

1. Population growth
2. Technology
3. Cultural patterns

Question 93

Dependecy Theory and Global Power relationships

Answer 93

Global power relationships would not be the main focus of modernization theories. These are more focused on investigating the process of social evolution and the development of societies. Dependency theory, for example, would explain poverty as a result of unequal distribution of power around the world.

Question 94

Meta-analysis

Answer 94

Meta-analysis is a quantitative method that employs statistical techniques to synthetize, or summarize the empirical results of multiple independent studies. It involves collecting a set of independent studies that defined similarly and studied the same set of targeted variables. Then, the findings of the multiple studies are compared to one another via some chosen technique (e.g., relative risk, means, and differences). Finally, it may provide a summary result of the strength of the association between the targeted variables.

Question 95

Solomon four-dgroup design

Answer 95

Solomon four-group design is an experimental design. It includes two experimental and two control groups. Each of the groups is exposed to different components of the intervention.

Question 96

Treatment of disease

Answer 96

Currently, modern, orthodox, scientific, or evidence-base medicine defines health as both the absence of disease and a state of well-being. Thus, it remains interested in the treatment of disease. It simply broadened its scope to embrace the maintenance and enhancement of population’s well-being.

Question 97

Biopsychosocial Approaches

Answer 97

Biopsychosocial approaches address physical and non-physical dimensions of health, including emotional, psychological, social, occupational, and spiritual. This is the approach that is currently recommended by modern, orthodox, scientific, or evidence-base medicine.

Question 98

Boosting wellness

Answer 98

Currently, an interest in wellness is shared by both orthodox and unorthodox medical approaches. Thus, this aim per si would not suffice to classify the approach as unorthodox.

Question 99

Existential Orientation

Answer 99

An existential orientation to counseling or coaching emphasizes the human condition as a whole by focusing on the individual’s strengths and capacities as well as limitations.

Question 100

Psychodynamic

Answer 100

Psychodynamic orientation focuses on the client’s unconscious inner conflicts and how these conflicts influence experience and behaviors. The goal of therapy or counseling is to reveal the unconscious to the conscious and find the meaning of seemingly meaningless experiences and actions.

Question 101

Mindfulness

Answer 101

Mindfulness is a term most commonly employed to designate a set of Buddhism-inspired therapeutic techniques – not a school of thought in Psychology.

Question 102

Cognitive Behavioral

Answer 102

Cognitive behavioral orientations target both behaviors and cognitions and their inter-relationship.

Question 103

Gambler’s Fallacy

Answer 103

The gambler’s fallacy (also known as Monte Carlo fallacy and the fallacy of the maturity of chances) amounts to the tendency to believe that if some event has happened very frequently or very rarely, the odds will soon change. That is, that frequent events will soon cease to happen and infrequent events will soon happen. This is a bias because the individual does not acknowledge, while estimating the odds of some future event, that statistical occurrences are independent of each other.

Question 104

Construct Validity

Answer 104

Construct validity refers to the extent the instrument is measuring what it is supposed to be measuring. In this case, the dependent variable was ceasing to play. The independent variable was attending to the pop up message; this is the construct being assessed.

Question 105

Internal Validity

Answer 105

Internal validity refers to whether the inferences or conclusions drawn can be linked back to the independent variable(s).

Question 106

Predictive Validity

Answer 106

Predictive validity refers to how well the scores of an instrument can predict another criterion (or instrument, or measure) that assesses the same construct.

Question 107

Third-Person Effect

Answer 107

The third-person effect is a phenomenon in which individuals indicate that persuasive messages like advertisements or commercials have minimal or no effect on them.

Question 108

Structural-Functionalism

Answer 108

Auguste Comte, together with Emile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer, was the founding father of structural-functionalism. Functionalism perceives society as an organic entity. Every element of society has to be understood with regard to the function it serves for the overall construction of society. Functionalism would ask how rites of passage contribute to the stable order of society. It is a macro-sociological approach.

Question 109

Condensation Reaction

Answer 109

A condensation reaction, aka dehydration synthesis, is when two molecules or moieties (functional groups) combine to form a larger molecule, together with the loss of a small molecule.

Question 110

How to tell if a reaction is Spontaneous/Nonspontaneous

Answer 110

The biosynthetic pathway is anabolic: subunits are used to build more complex molecules. Building requires energy and thus without energy cannot proceed.

Question 111

Mutations and Sequences

Answer 111

Think what is being altered: is it for binding? Or more?

Question 112

Conservative vs. Semmi-conservative vs. Dispersive

Answer 112

Look at a diagram of this.

Question 113

Ganglion vs. Nucleus

Answer 113

Only two of the answer choices should seem possible: the ganglion and the nucleus. A ganglion is a cluster of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system, while a nucleus is a cluster of nerve cell bodies in the central nervous system.

Question 114

Anabolic and Catabolic

Answer 114

Anabolic - Endothermic and Nonspontaneous

Catabolic - exothermic and Spontaneous

Question 115

Kinesthetic/Proprioception

Answer 115

Sense of position and self in space

Question 116

Vestibular sense

Answer 116

Sense of balance

Question 117

Cultural vs Social Capital

Answer 117

Cultural capital describes all the nonfinancial and nonsocial network assets that confer advantage in society, such as the prestige of a medical training program from which one graduated.

Social capital includes the connections within one’s social network that can help one advance, such as knowing individuals who already work at the hospital where one hopes to get a job.

Question 118

Demographic Transition Model Changes

Answer 118

According to the demographic transition model, a society’s transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates typically occurs in the following stages:

Stage 1: In preindustrial societies, birth and death rates are both high and population growth is slow.

Stage 2: As societies begin to industrialize, death rates drop as food/medicine availability and sanitation increase, and population growth is rapid.

Stage 3: As societies urbanize, the population continues to grow, but birth rates begin to decline as access to contraception increases.

Stage 4: In developed societies, birth and death rates are both low and population growth is slow.

Stage 5: For highly developed societies with very low birth rates, the population may decline.

Question 119

Stressors

Answer 119

Stressors are threatening, demanding stimuli that disturb equilibrium. Daily hassles are minor irritations affecting few people. Personal life events are major milestones affecting few people. Environmental (ambient) stressors are minor irritations affecting large numbers of people, and catastrophes are major events affecting many people.

Question 120

Hawthorne Effect

Answer 120

The Hawthorne effect describes experimental subjects modifying their behavior or responses because they know they are being observed.

Question 121

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Answer 121

The Yerkes-Dodson law suggests that there is an optimal level of physiological or mental arousal at which performance is maximized; performance will decline with too little or too much arousal.

Question 122

Thomas Theorem

Answer 122

Thomas theorem predicts that an individual’s response or reaction to a situation is the result of her interpretation of the situation. In other words, our actions are based on our perception of reality.

Question 123

General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 123

The general adaptation syndrome (GAS), proposed by Hans Seyle, describes how the body reacts to stress that is acute or long-lasting. According to this model, there are three stages of the stress response:

The alarm stage is the first few minutes of the stress response, during which the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to act (ie, fight-or-flight response). Heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood glucose levels increase, and stress hormones (eg, adrenaline, cortisol) are released.

The resistance stage can last for hours (eg, exercise), days (eg, final exams), or even months (eg, family death). During this stage, the body attempts to resist or address the stressor. Levels of stress hormones begin to return to normal. The body attempts to establish a new equilibrium.

If stress continues over a prolonged period, the body enters the exhaustion stage, a state of arousal but with depleted energy. It is during this stage that chronic diseases (eg, high blood pressure, heart disease) can develop. The body is no longer able to resist the impact of stressors.

Question 124

Major Psychotherapeutic Approaches

Answer 124

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy - Attempts to change negative throughts/beliefs (cognitions) & maladaptive behaviors. Techniques (desensitization, self talk) used to replace destructive thoughts/behaviors with healthy ones

Psychoanalytic therapy (talk therapy) - Attempts to uncover how unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood shape behaviors. Techniques are - free association, dream analysis used to analyze unconscious

Humanistic Therapy (Person-centered therapy) - attempts to empower individual to move toward self-actualization. Unconditional positive regard and empathy used to encourage client to reach full potential.

Question 125

Kinship Types

Answer 125

Consanguineal - Based on genetic relationship (e.g parents)

Affinal - Based on marriage

Fictive - Social ties that are not consanguineal or affineal (adopted children).

Primary kinship - First-degree family members (mother)

Secondary kinship - Primary kin or first-degree family members (mother’s brother)

Tertiary - Secondary kin or first-degree family members (mother’s uncle)

Question 126

Sick role (Talcott Parsons)

Answer 126

Sick role theory conceptualizes illness as a socially acceptable form of deviance. When ill, an individual enters into the “sick role”, a socially defined status with rights and obligations.

A sick person has the right to be excused from normal responsibilities and to be held blameless for the illness. A sick person has the obligation to attempt to get well as soon as possible, and to seek and comply with the advice of medical professionals.

Question 127

Borderline Personality Disorder

Answer 127

Borderline personality disorder is characterized by instability in mood, sense of self, and relationships. Symptoms may include extreme mood reactivity, fear of abandonment, impulsive or reckless behavior (eg, drug use, unsafe sex), and suicidal or self-harming behavior.

Question 128

Bipolar Disorders

Answer 128

Bipolar disorders (BD) are characterized by mania, defined as an abnormally elevated or irritable mood and increased energy. Manic episodes may also include feelings of grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, flight of ideas (rapid thoughts), and impulsive or reckless behaviors (eg, extreme spending, promiscuous sexual activity).

Most people with BD also experience depressive episodes. Depressive episodes share the same symptoms as depressive disorder, such as feelings of sadness or hopelessness, lack of interest in activities, sleep disturbances, and frequent thoughts of death or suicide.

Question 129

Biomedical Approach

Answer 129

The biomedical approach to mental illness suggests that physiological causes (abnormal brain chemistry) result in psychological symptoms, and therefore medical treatment is advised to fix the underlying problem. This approach is best demonstrated by pharmaceutical companies raising BD symptom awareness while offering new drug therapies.

The biomedical approach (also known as the biomedical model) emphasizes diagnosis (ie, disease identification based on symptoms and/or diagnostic testing) and treatment (eg, drugs, surgery). Predominant in American medicine, this approach assumes that medical intervention can fix the problem and the patient will play a passive role in the process.

The advantages to this approach include increased life expectancy rates, demonstrated effectiveness for many illnesses, and improved quality of life for some patients, particularly those with chronic conditions who greatly benefit from drug therapy. However, this approach is not effective for many individuals with psychological disorders. Disadvantages of this approach include its narrow focus, which ignores other (eg, social) factors, and its reliance on drugs, many of which can produce harmful side effects.

Question 130

Availability vs. Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 130

Availability - How easily something comes to memory (eg, assuming shark attacks are common after seeing one reported on the news)

Representativeness - How well something matches a mental prototype (eg, assuming a woman dressed in scrubs is a nurse rather than a surgeon)

Question 131

Illness Experience

Answer 131

The illness experience is a symbolic interactionist perspective that examines how individuals understand and cope with serious or chronic illnesses that impact daily life and self-identity.

Question 132

Illness Experience

Answer 132

The illness experience is a symbolic interactionist perspective that examines how individuals understand and cope with serious or chronic illnesses that impact daily life and self-identity.

Question 133

Equivalent Protons

Answer 133

Hydrogen atoms or groups on a molecule that display rotational or planar symmetry are in identical magnetic environments. These atoms, called chemically equivalent hydrogens, have the same types of atoms surrounding them. Equivalent hydrogens have identical chemical shifts and are represented as a single signal on the NMR spectrum.

Question 134

Spherical Aberration

Answer 134

An ideal lens generates an image of an object at a single focal point, regardless of the locations at which the light rays enter and exit the lens. Spherical aberration describes the phenomenon by which real lenses’ perfectly rounded (ie, spherical) surfaces do not produce an image at a single point, but rather at a series of focal points.

In converging lenses, the location of each focal point is related to the distance from the principal axis (ie, the lens center) at which light enters and exits the lens. Spherical aberration is most pronounced among rays entering and exiting the lens periphery (ie, distant from the principal axis). Furthermore, correcting spherical aberration in converging lenses requires using an aspherical lens in which the thickness of the lens periphery is decreased relative to a perfectly rounded lens.

Because reducing the thickness of the lens periphery will lead to less refraction of light, light rays exiting the periphery of a spherical converging lens can be said to refract excessively, converging on a focal point that is too close to the lens.

Question 135

Chromatic Dispersion

Answer 135

Chromatic dispersion describes the failure of a lens to focus multicolored light onto a single point. Chromatic dispersion in converging lenses is corrected by using a diverging lens to increase the thickness of the lens periphery.

Question 136

Apoptosis

Answer 136

Apoptosis is the controlled, programmed death of cells. It occurs in response to a variety of circumstances, including oxidative stress as well as DNA damage and certain developmental events. Apoptosis is initiated when the mitochondrial membrane is permeabilized in response to these environmental cues. This allows the release of cytochrome C from the mitochondria, resulting in increased cytosolic cytochrome C (Choice B). Cytochrome C induces proteolysis (Choice C) and other degradative pathways by activating caspase proteases (inactive caspase is found in healthy cells).

Question 137

Dissociative Disorders

Answer 137

Dissociative disorders are characterized by disruptions to memory and identity. Dissociative amnesia involves the inability to recall important autobiographical information (eg, personal history, traumatic event). Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personalities and amnesia.

Question 138

Personality Disorder

Answer 138

Personality disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors differing markedly from social norms. Personality disorders are stable over time and across environments and cause significant distress or impairment of functioning.

Individuals with personality disorders have pathological personal traits (eg, rigidity, greediness) and maladaptive patterns of relating to others (eg, hostility, superficiality) that are stable over time and across situations.

For someone with a pattern of conflict-ridden interpersonal relationships in all settings since late adolescence (ie, stable over time), resulting in a history of sporadic employment and tumultuous romantic relationships (ie, significant impairment), the most likely diagnosis is a personality disorder.

Question 139

Sublimation and Reaction Formation

Answer 139

Sublimation is TRANSFORMING unacceptable thoughts/behaviors into acceptable thoughts/behaviors (e.g. taking up boxing as a way to channel one’s anger)

Reaction Formation is behaving in a manner that is opposite unacceptable thoughts/behaviors

Question 140

Displacement and Projection

Answer 140

Displacement is taking out unacceptable thoughts/behaviors on a safe target (e.g punching a pillow when an angry at parents)

Projection is attributing unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to someone or something else (e.g. calling the sidewalk “stupid” after tripping)

Question 141

Denial and Rationalization

Answer 141

Denial is the inabaility or refusal to recognize unacceptable thoughts/behaviors (e.g. insisting one is not angry when actually angry)

Rationalization is making excuses for unacceptable thoughts/behaviors

Question 142

Regression and Repression

Answer 142

Regression is behaving as if much younger to avoid unacceptable thoughts/behaviors (e.g. moving back in with parents to avoid personal responsibilities)

Repression is blocking unacceptable thoughts/behaviors from unconsciousness (e.g. being unaware of a traumatic past experience)

Question 143

Organizations

Answer 143

In normative organizations, people voluntarily unite based on shared values and/or goals (eg, church congregations, sororities).

In utilitarian organizations, members are compensated for their involvement, typically through money (eg, paid employment) or certification/diploma (eg, university students).

In coercive organizations, membership is not freely chosen (eg, prisoners) and/or maintained (eg, military service members must be discharged).

Question 144

Class and False Consciousness

Answer 144

Class consciousness involves the recognition of class structure and an identification with one’s own social class such that individuals understand that people from other classes have needs and interests different from their own.

False consciousness results when individuals from lower classes adopt the misleading views of the upper class and accept the status quo (ie, injustice, exploitation).

Individuals from the lower classes who do not have class consciousness may blame themselves for undesirable health outcomes or be more likely to agree with media that stress individual responsibility above all other factors.

Question 145

Illness Anxiety Disorder

Answer 145

Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious disease (e.g. HIV, cancer)

Question 146

Conversion Disorder

Answer 146

“Neurological symptoms” e.g. (paralysis, blindness) that are not explainable by a medical condition

Question 147

Somatic Symptom disorder

Answer 147

Extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms (e.g. fatigue and pain)

Question 148

Factitious disorder

Answer 148

Symptoms or illness are intentionally fabricated without obvious external gain (e.g. disability benefits)

Question 149

Frustration-Aggression Theory

Answer 149

It contends that individuals exhibit violence as a result of having a goal or effort blocked or defeated (i.e. frustration).

Question 150

Decarboxylation

Answer 150

Decarboxylation is a reaction that removes a carboxyl group from a carboxylic acid with a β-carbonyl, releasing the carboxyl group as CO2 gas. A β-carbonyl is necessary for decarboxylation because a cyclic transition state incorporating both carbonyls is formed. Esters with a β-carbonyl can also undergo decarboxylation if they are hydrolyzed to a carboxylic acid first.

Question 151

Bipolar 1, Bipolar 2, and Cyclothymic Disorders

Answer 151

Bipolar 1: Contains at least one manic episode

Bipolar 2: Contains at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode

Cyclothymic disorder: Contains hypomanic episodes with dysthymia

Dysthymia: Persistent mild depression

Question 152

E. coli membranes

Answer 152

75 % protein and 25 % phospholipid

Question 153

Homophilous group

Answer 153

More similar to reference group

Question 154

Reference Group

Answer 154

Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior

Question 155

Secondary group

Answer 155

Formal and impersonal group

Question 156

Out-group

Answer 156

Group that people do not feel connected to

Question 157

Social Group

Answer 157

Collection of people with common identity and regular interaction

Question 158

General Note about Experiments

Answer 158

Hypothesized factors must be temporally prior to their assumed effects.

Question 159

Script

Answer 159

Organized information regarding the order of actions that are appropriate to a familiar situation

Question 160

Schemas

Answer 160

This is what constitutes an identity

Question 161

Doppler Ultrasound

Answer 161

Doppler ultrasound is a specialized imaging technique that allows for the characterization of dynamic structures. However, shock wave ultrasound is typically used to destroy static structures.

Question 162

Shockwave and Ultrasound

Answer 162

Shock wave therapies like shock wave ultrasound utilize high-frequency waves to cause destructive, high-amplitude vibrations within target structures. For maximum effectiveness, the frequency of the shock waves should match the resonance frequency of the target structure.

Question 163

Linear Polarized Filter/waveforms

Answer 163

Linearly polarized waveforms are associated with oscillations that occur in a particular orientation of the x,y,z-coordinate system. A linear polarization filter blocks electric fields aligned perpendicular to the axis of polarization (ie, 50% of total intensity).

Question 164

Taste Aversion

Answer 164

Taste aversion is a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs after just one instance of becoming ill following the consumption of something. Taste aversions can develop despite many hours passing between consumption and illness and are long-lasting.

Question 165

Compliance

Answer 165

Compliance is a type of conformity whereby an individual publicly goes along with the group but privately maintains his or her own stance.

Question 166

Normative Social Influence

Answer 166

Normative social influence describes when an individual conforms to fit in or avoid rejection by others.

Question 167

Amu units

Answer 167

96.11 amu × (1 g / 1 mol amu) = 96.11 g/mol

Question 168

Oxidizers and Reducers

Answer 168

Aldehydes are readily oxidized to carboxylic acids in aqueous environments by a number of oxidizing agents, including chromium compounds. Aldehydes are believed to go through a hydrate intermediate before being oxidized to a carboxylic acid. The anhydrous oxidizing reagent pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) cannot oxidize aldehydes because it lacks the water needed to form the hydrate intermediate.

However, pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) can only oxidize primary and secondary alcohols to aldehydes and ketones, respectively. PCC cannot oxidize aldehydes further because it is an anhydrous oxidizing reagent and does not contain the water necessary to convert the aldehyde to a hydrate, a necessary intermediate to be oxidized to the carboxylic acid.

(Choices A, B, and C) CrO3, KMnO4, and H2CrO4 can all oxidize aldehydes to carboxylic acids because these reagents are all in aqueous environments, meaning they contain the water necessary to convert the aldehyde to the hydrate intermediate that is oxidized to the carboxylic acid.

Question 169

Tollen’s Reagent

Answer 169

Tollens test is used to identify the presence of aldehydes and hydroxy ketones, and uses the oxidizing agent [Ag(NH3)2]+ to oxidize aldehydes to carboxylic acids. Ketoses can undergo tautomerization via an enediol intermediate to their aldose form, resulting in a positive Tollens test and the formation of a silver mirror.

Question 170

Hydride Reagents

Answer 170

Hydride reagents, such as LiAlH4, act as nucleophiles and attack electrophilic centers, most commonly carbonyl carbons (C=O). These reagents cause a reduction of the electrophile, decreasing the number of bonds to electronegative atoms and increasing the number of bonds to less electronegative atoms.

Question 171

Sigma and Pi bonds

Answer 171

Sigma bonds are lower in energy, more stable, and have a greater dissociation energy than π bonds. Although individual π bonds are weaker than σ bonds, double and triple bonds are composed of both σ and π bonds and are therefore stronger overall than a single bond.

Question 172

Leptin, fatty-acid oxidation, and fatty-acid synthesis

Answer 172

Leptin resistance leads to accumulation of fatty acid precursors (eg, malonyl-CoA), resulting in an increased concentration of triglycerides (composed of glycerol and fatty acids) and reduced oxidation of fatty acids.

Leptin increases fatty acid oxidation and decreases fatty acid synthesis. In contrast, leptin-resistant cells cannot increase fatty acid oxidation despite adequate leptin signaling. As a result, AMPK signaling cannot be activated by leptin and leads to increased and uninhibited ACC activity, promoting fatty acid synthesis and reducing β-oxidation.

Question 173

Cofactors, coenzymes, and Allosteric effectors

Answer 173

Cofactors, including metal ions and coenzymes (small organic compounds), bind to the enzyme’s active site and are required for enzymatic activity. The ACC enzyme is active in the absence of citrate, so citrate is neither a coenzyme nor a cofactor.

Allosteric effectors regulate enzymatic activity by binding at sites other than the active site and causing conformational changes in the enzyme. As a result, enzymatic activity is either decreased (ie, inhibited) or increased (ie, activated). Table 1 shows that regardless of saline or leptin administration, ACC activity increases when citrate (2 nM) is added. Therefore, citrate is most likely an allosteric effector that activates ACC. Note that any increase in enzyme activity is considered activation, even if the enzyme had some non-zero activity in the absence of the allosteric effector.

Question 174

Protein Affinity and Kd

Answer 174

Protein domains are distinct regions in a polypeptide chain that fold independently. In general, each domain carries out a separate function, although one domain may assist another in performing its function. One of the most common functions of a protein domain is to bind a small molecule, called a ligand. The affinity of a protein for a ligand is measured by the dissociation constant, Kd. Kd is a measure of how readily a protein-ligand complex dissociates, so a small Kd corresponds to high binding affinity (or a low tendency of the complex to dissociate).

The protein in the question consists of domains A, B, and C. If domain A is the only domain involved in ligand binding, then binding affinity will be unaffected in the absence of domains B and C. If a mutant in which domains B and C are deleted (ie, only domain A remains) can bind the ligand with the same Kd as the wild-type protein, this would suggest that only domain A is involved in ligand binding, and that the other domains carry out other functions.

Question 175

Holoenzymes and Apoenzymes; Lock and Key; Induced fit

Answer 175

Cofactors are molecules required for enzyme catalysis. Enzymes that require cofactors for activity are called apoenzymes when the cofactor is absent whereas those containing cofactors are known as holoenzymes. The passage does not indicate that NSP4 needs a cofactor for activity.

The lock and key model proposes that the active site of an enzyme is already in the correct conformation to bind to a substrate. In contrast, the induced fit theory states that the initial binding of a substrate causes the active site to undergo a conformational change that complements the structure of the substrate.

The induced fit model states that a conformational change is induced when the substrate binds the active site, resulting in the formation of a functional ES complex that is said to be in the induced form. Enzymes are highly specific for their substrates, and only the correct substrate can induce the required complementary change in active site conformation. Shifting an enzyme’s tertiary or quaternary structure to alter the shape of the active site requires energy.

Two competing theories exist regarding enzyme-substrate interaction, the lock and key theory and the induced fit model. The lock and key theory proposes that an enzyme’s active site is already in the proper structural conformation to allow a substrate to bind readily and form an active enzyme-substrate (ES) complex. This theory proposes that no conformational changes are necessary for catalysis to occur.

Question 176

Entropy and Solvation Layer

Answer 176

Entropy is a measure of the disorder within a system. Increased order is expressed as a negative entropy change whereas increased disorder corresponds to a positive entropy change. The water molecules surrounding folded proteins have higher entropy than those surrounding unfolded proteins because the hydrophobic molecules on the surface of unfolded proteins force water to form a rigid solvation layer.

Question 177

Loading, Negative, and Positive Control

Answer 177

Loading controls are used to normalize protein detection and ensure that protein loading and mobility are standardized across the gel. Proteins used as loading controls tend to be ubiquitously expressed as they have consistent concentration levels across all cell/tissue types regardless of varied experimental conditions.

A negative control is a standard experimental condition in which no response is expected (eg, using cells unable to express HIF-1α). However, α-tubulin is always expressed, and its presence does not confirm/predict the absence of HIF-1α.

A positive control is one in which the expected result is always observed (eg, using cells already known to always produce HIF-1α). α-Tubulin is not a positive control because it does not confirm/predict the presence of HIF-1α, the expected result under hypoxic conditions.

Question 178

Electron Carriers

Answer 178

NADH is a two-electron carrier. Turning O2 into water requires four electrons, so two NADH molecules would need to pass their electrons through the ETC to fully reduce O2. NADH, FADH2, and UQH2 can each carry up to two electrons. NADH passes them both together; FADH2 and UQH2 can pass them one at a time. Cytochrome C can carry only one electron, so four cyt-Cred molecules are required to fully reduce oxygen.

Question 179

Neutrophils

Answer 179

They circulate throughout the body searching for pathogens to engulf and kill invading organisms and contribute to the inflammatory response.

Question 180

Mast cells

Answer 180

These are resident in tissues and release local chemical mediators associated with the inflammatory process such as histamine, serotonin, thromboxane, and prosaglandins

Question 181

Basophils

Answer 181

These are circulating cells and they release histamine and heparin in the inflammatory response.

Question 182

Macrophages

Answer 182

They circulate and migrate into infected tissues to engulf and digest foreign pathogens and act as antigen-presenting cells to activate the adaptive immune system.

Question 183

Dendritic cells

Answer 183

These are resident cells in tissues exposed to external environment. They are very important in engulfing and presenting antigens to cells of the adaptive immune system.

Question 184

Natural Killer cells

Answer 184

They nonspecifically attack and kill cells that have been infected by viruses or are tumor cells.

Question 185

Dual Coding Theory

Answer 185

This theory of cognition focuses on the fact that human process and represent verbal and non-verbal information in separate, related systems. E.g the brain uses a different kind of representation for the word “tree” than it does for the image of the tree.

Question 186

Misinformation effect

Answer 186

The misinformation effect happens when a person’s recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information.

Question 187

State-dependency effect

Answer 187

State-dependent memory or state-dependent learning is the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

Question 188

Spreading of activation theory and Semantic networks

Answer 188

Spreading activation is a phenomenon that occurs when a series of nodes are activated. These nodes create an activation pattern of other, related nodes that will be activated. This is how we remember more details about a singular event.

Semantic networks (also known as frame networks) are neural networks that signify lingual or logical relationships between ideas.

Question 189

Psychodynamic approach

Answer 189

The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the personality.

Question 190

Discriminatory stimuli

Answer 190

Discrimination is a term used in both classical and operant conditioning. It involves the ability to distinguish between one stimulus and similar stimuli. In both cases, it means responding only to certain stimuli, and not responding to those that are similar.

Question 191

Reticular Activating System

Answer 191

This is the gatekeeper of factors that enter into our consciousness and awareness. It also focuses on the states and arousal of the body in terms of wakefulness, asleep, and dreaming (to an extent).

Question 192

Reticular Activating system, autonomic nervous system, limbic system, and somatic nervous system

Answer 192

1. Reticular activating system - Alertness, consciousness, and awareness
2. Autonomic nervous system - “Rest and digest” and “Fight and flight”
3. Limbic system - Basic emotions an ddrives.
4. Somatic nervous system - Voluntary control

Question 193

Depolarizing Inducers

Answer 193

1. Chemically - Taste and Olfactory
2. Mechanically - Hair cells
3. Electrically - Heart
4. Synaptically - Brain/Spinal cord/nervous system

Question 194

Actor-observer bias

Answer 194

Actors attribute their own behavior to situational factors (not feeling well) whereas observers attribute actors’ behavior to dispositional factors (social awkwardness).

Question 195

Optimum Arousal Theory

Answer 195

This theory states that optimal performance requires optimal arousal and that arousal levels that are too high or too low will impede performance.

Question 196

Parietal Lobe

Answer 196

This is at the back of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres. It functions in processing sensory information regarding the location of parts of the body as well as interpreting visual information and processing language and mathematics

Question 197

Classical method of measuring sympathetic activity

Answer 197

Measuring of electrical conductance

Question 198

Hindbrain

Answer 198

The hindbrain is composed of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum. The medulla lies next to the spinal cord and controls functions outside conscious control, such as breathing and blood flow. In other words, the medulla controls essential functions.

Question 199

Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome

Answer 199

It does not make any claim about avoidance-avoidance or approach-approach conflicts. It says that people’s response to various stressors is similar and focuses on the pattern of response: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Question 200

Assimilation

Answer 200

Assimilation is related to the process of social integration and generally refers to when new members adopt the main elements of a culture.

Question 201

Nativist theory

Answer 201

Nativist theory is a biologically based theory, which argues that humans are pre-programmed with the innate ability to develop language.

Question 202

Linguistic relativity or Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Answer 202

This relates to the idea that the structure of language affects/influences the perception of its speakers.

Question 203

Social Support

Answer 203

This refers to social network ties (friends, family, and other relationships) that provide an individual with various types of assoistance, which are associated with improving health or reducing harm.

Question 204

7 plus or minus 2

Answer 204

This is the magic number coined by George Miller to give an estimate of the capacity of working memory which was between 5 and 9 items

Question 205

Controlled vs. Automatic processing

Answer 205

Controlled processing requires us to pay attention and deliberately put in effort. Controlled processing is intentionally done while we are consciously aware of what we are doing. In other words, we actually have to think about what is going on and make decisions. We are in ‘control’ of these processes. For example, when we first learned how to ride a bike, we had to pay attention to what we were doing. We had to be consciously aware of where the brakes were, where the pedals are located, how to stop, how to steer the bike, etc. We purposefully paid attention to all of these things, and we put forth the effort to learn how to ride a bike. Some other examples of controlled processing include the first time a person drives a car, writing a letter to a friend, and answering interview questions.

Automatic processing does not require us to pay attention, nor do we have to deliberately put in effort to control automatic processes. Automatic processing occurs without us giving much thought to it. If we practice something long enough, it becomes automatic. For example, as an experienced bike rider, you may be able to do many bike-riding tasks (i.e. shifting the gears of the bike, braking, and steering) automatically without giving it much thought. You can steer, brake, react to cars on the road, and change speeds because all of the years of practice have made it possible for you to do these things automatically without being consciously aware of what you are doing. Some other examples of automatic processing include playing the piano, walking, and singing a song you are familiar with.

Question 206

Divided attention

Answer 206

It is a higher-level skill where you have to perform two (or more) tasks at the same tiime, and attention is required for the performance of both (or all) the tasks. Examples include driviong a car while carrying on a conversation with a passengerm or eating dinner while watching news.

Question 207

Content analysis

Answer 207

It is a sociological method that is used to make inferences about communication.

Question 208

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Analysis

Answer 208

Quantitative - Focuses on the statistical analysis of the total claims

Qualitative - Focuses on the in-depth analysis of a subset of cases.

Question 209

Stranger Anxiety

Answer 209

Stranger anxiety is a typical part of the developmental sequence that most children experience. It can occur even if the child is with a caregiver or another person they trust. It peaks from six to 12 months but may recur afterwards until the age of 24 months.

Question 210

Critical Period

Answer 210

A period during someone’s development in which a particular skill or characteristic is believed to be most readily acquired

Question 211

Object Permeance

Answer 211

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be perceived (seen, heard, touched, smelled or sensed in any way).

Question 212

Counterbalancing

Answer 212

This is a method to control for any effect that the order of presenting stimuli might have on the dependent variable.

Question 213

Neuroleptics vs. Atypical antipsychotics

Answer 213

Neuroleptics are the first antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia and though they are effective in treating positive symptoms, their side effects include cognitive dulling, which can exacerbate negative symptoms.

Atypical antipsychotics are a class of drugs used primarily to treat psychotic disorders. Rationale for use includes relief from symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions or abnormal behaviour/thought, and sedative and tranquillising effects in very disturbed or aggressive patients. Atypical antipsychotics are thought to be better in treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia although differences may also be due to fewer adverse effects and/or better patient compliance.

Question 214

Fluid intelligence

Answer 214

This is the ability to think on one’s feet, be adaptable, and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning. Fluid intelligence is key to cognitive functioning and it was positively correlated with verbal fluency in the SPD group.

Question 215

Activation-synthesis model

Answer 215

The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis is a neurobiological theory of dreams. First proposed by Harvard University psychiatrists John Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley in 1977, the hypothesis suggests that dreams are created by changes in neuron activity that activates the brainstem during REM sleep.

In other words, as the body and brain cycles through the day and night, the chemicals that activate the nerves of the brainstem shift and change. As they change, they trigger brain activity that activates memories that come to the surface during periods of the light REM sleep that we all experience.

Question 216

Long-term potentiation

Answer 216

In neuroscience, long-term potentiation is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity. These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons.

Question 217

Looking-glass self

Answer 217

Cooley´s concept of the looking glass self, states that a person’s self grows out of a person´s social interactions with others. The view of ourselves comes from the contemplation of personal qualities and impressions of how others perceive us.

Question 218

Generalized other

Answer 218

This was developed by Mead that the self developed during social interaction. It is considered that generalized others to be general cultural norms and values society take as their own. It is preparatory stage, play stage, and game stage.

Question 219

Preparatory, Play, and Game stage

Answer 219

Preparatory - It is the beginning of he second year of child. In this stage the child starts giving reactions to the outside environment. These responses are meaningless to the outsider. The mother or other person in close contact with the child can understand his/her behavior. By the end of the second year child starts talking and his/her vocabulary consists of many words.

Play - This stage starts with the beginning of the third year of age. This has the following examples.

a. Reaction to significant others. The child plays the role of significant other like mother, father etc. The child behaves like significant others while playing with toys.
b. The Child Gets Many Selves. At this stage the child gets many selves at the same time. On one hand he plays his own role unconsciously and on other hand play the role of individuals belonging to significant others. For example sometimes a child wear his father coat and pretend to be his father.

Game - The game stage starts at the fourth years of the child. The child starts thinking of others as well as he tries to understand a question like what is he and he is not. In this stage the child has a role and he changes the behavior according to the impressions of others and in different situations.

Question 220

Ksp low and high values

Answer 220

The lower the value off Ksp, the lower the concentrations of the cation and anion in an aqueous solution and the lower the solubility of the compound in water and vice-versa.

Question 221

Proximal and Distal Stimulus

Answer 221

The distal stimulus corresponds to what is generally considered the “actual” object in the environment. The proximal stimulus is generally defined as the pattern of energy impinging on the observer’s sensory receptors. … The observer depends most directly on proximal stimuli, not distal stimuli, in perceiving his world.

Question 222

Parietal Lobe

Answer 222

Integrating sensory information from various senses, visuospatial processing

Question 223

Frontal Lobe

Answer 223

Conscious thought

Question 224

Occipital Lobe

Answer 224

Sense of sight

Question 225

Temporal Lobe

Answer 225

Senses of smell and sound, processing of complex stimuli like faces

Question 226

Limbic lobe

Answer 226

Emotion and memory

Question 227

Insular cortex

Answer 227

Pain and some other senses

Question 228

Spacing Effects

Answer 228

The spacing effect is the phenomenon whereby learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying the same amount of content in a single session. That is, it is better to use spaced presentation rather than massed presentation.

Question 229

Repressed and Recovered memory

Answer 229

Repressed memories are memories that have been unconsciously blocked due to the memory being associated with a high level of stress or trauma

Definition of recovered memory. : a memory of a traumatic event (such as sexual abuse) experienced typically during childhood that is forgotten and then recalled many years later that is sometimes held to be an invalid or false remembrance generated by outside influence.

Question 230

Social Epidemiology

Answer 230

It focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations.

Question 231

Social Epidemiology

Answer 231

It focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations.

Question 232

Aldol condensation

Answer 232

An aldol condensation is a condensation reaction in organic chemistry in which an enol or an enolate ion reacts with a carbonyl compound to form a β-hydroxyaldehyde or β-hydroxyketone, followed by dehydration to give a conjugated enone.

Question 233

Linearly Decreasing and Constant decreasing

Answer 233

Linear will be a curve slope and the constant will be a straight decrease

Question 234

Uniform Electric Field

Answer 234

This means that the electric field lines are equally spaced at both electrodes adn between them. At distances far from the charges, where the electric field is weaker, the lines are more spread out. … The equally spaced, parallel lines indicate that the electric field has the same magnitude and direction at all points in the central region of the capacitor.

Question 235

Acetylation

Answer 235

CH3-C=O

Question 236

Relative Rate

Answer 236

Think multiplication instead of sum or difference

Question 237

Lewis Base

Answer 237

Think more on anion and lone pairs

Question 238

Porphyrin structure

Answer 238

Think of this as a five-sided heterocycle containing one nitrogen atom

Question 239

Important note about frequency

Answer 239

Frequency of a wave is not affected by the medium through which it propagates.

Question 240

Release Factor

Answer 240

A protein that terminates the translation of the protein

Question 241

Release Factor

Answer 241

A protein that terminates the translation of the protein

Question 242

Superheating and Boiling chips

Answer 242

Superheating occurs when a liquid is heated above its boiling point but does not boil. Surface tension can cause superheating because it can inhibit the formation of bubbles. As bubbles attempt to form, surface tension causes a local increase in vapor pressure that surpasses the ambient pressure, allowing the liquid to heat beyond its boiling point. This phenomenon can cause the formation of large bubbles at the surface, which can erupt violently and eject the hot liquid from the distillation flask in a process called bumping. This effect is difficult to overcome without scratches or crevices in the container where smaller bubbles can begin to form.

Boiling chips are made of nonreactive porous material and provide nucleation sites where small bubbles of vapor can form. This effect overcomes the surface tension and allows the liquid to boil evenly at its normal boiling temperature, thereby preventing superheating.

Question 243

Thermophilic enzymes

Answer 243

Although enzymes from thermophiles typically operate slowly below 37 °C, this is most likely due to inflexibility of the active site, not denaturation. Accordingly, thermophilic enzymes most likely maintain their tertiary structure below 37 °C because molecular motion at this temperature is too slow to break intramolecular bonds.

Question 244

Convergent Evolution

Answer 244

Convergent evolution is defined as a process whereby distantly related organisms independently evolve similar traits to adapt to similar needs.

Question 245

Two proteins from a bacterial chromosome

Answer 245

An operon containing two genes in prokaryotic cells is transcribed from a single promoter upstream of the first gene in the operon.

Question 246

Review Restriction Enzyme

Answer 246

A restriction enzyme that recognizes a four-base sequence or a six-base sequence can recognize this sequence within the HIF binding sequence.

Question 247

Imprinted Gene

Answer 247

Imprinted genes are genes whose expression is determined by the parent that contributed them. Imprinted genes violate the usual rule of inheritance that both alleles in a heterozygote are equally expressed.

Question 248

How do RNA viruses replicate themselves?

Answer 248

RNA viruses require a type of transcriptase (reverse transcriptase) to replicate themselves.

Question 249

Centration

Answer 249

Centration is the tendency to focus on one salient aspect of a situation and neglect other, possibly relevant aspects.

Question 250

Egocentrism

Answer 250

Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between self and other. More specifically, it is the inability to untangle subjective schemas from objective reality and an inability to understand or assume any perspective other than one’s own.

Question 251

Egocentrism

Answer 251

Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between self and other. More specifically, it is the inability to untangle subjective schemas from objective reality and an inability to understand or assume any perspective other than one’s own.

Question 252

Shaping vs. Acquisition

Answer 252

Acquisition: explains the initial phase of acquiring a behavior and applies to BOTH classical and operant conditioning

Shaping: a procedure of continuous reinforcement to help the subject acquire a behavior that ONLY applies to operant conditioning

Question 253

Shaping vs. Acquisition

Answer 253

Acquisition: explains the initial phase of acquiring a behavior and applies to BOTH classical and operant conditioning

Shaping: a procedure of continuous reinforcement to help the subject acquire a behavior that ONLY applies to operant conditioning

Question 254

Source monitoring errors

Answer 254

A source-monitoring error is a type of memory error where the source of a memory is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience.

Question 255

Source monitoring errors

Answer 255

A source-monitoring error is a type of memory error where the source of a memory is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience.

Question 256

Mitosis but not Meiosis I

Answer 256

During anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids are pulled apart at the centromere, each becoming an independent chromosome in the two diploid daughter cells. During anaphase I of meiosis I, homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated into the the daughter cells. However, each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids joined to each other at the centromere. It is not until anaphase II of meiosis II that the centromere is split and the sister chromatids separate.