Genesis

Question 1

Signal detection Theory

Answer 1

Signal detection theory quantifies how judgments or decisions are made under uncertain conditions amid “noise” (external or internal distractions). This theory describes four possible outcomes. When a signal is correctly perceived as present, it is a correct detection, or a “hit.” When a signal is not detected even though it is present, it is a false negative, or a “miss.” When a signal is absent but a perception is erroneously reported, this is a false positive, and when the signal is accurately judged absent, this is a correct rejection.

Question 2

Locus of Control

Answer 2

Locus of control (LOC) refers to an individual’s beliefs about who or what controls the outcome of an event or situation. Individuals with an external LOC feel that outcomes are due to factors beyond their control, such as luck, fate, or powerful others. Individuals with an internal LOC feel that outcomes are due to factors within their control, such as their own behaviors.

Question 3

Psychotherapeutic Approaches

Answer 3

1. Cognitive -Behavioral Therapy: Attempts to change negative thoughts/beliefs (cognitions) & maladaptive behaviors (e.g. desensitization, self-talk used to replace destructive thoughts and behaviors with healthy ones)
2. Psychoanalytic therapy (“Talk” therapy): Attempts to uncover how unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood shape behaviors (e.g. free association, dream analysis used to analyze unconsciousness)
3. Humanistic therapy (Person-centered therapy): Attempts to empower individual to move toward self-actualization. E.g. unconditional positive regard and empathy used to encourage client to reach full potential.

Question 4

External Validity

Answer 4

Generalizability is the extent to which study results can be applied to other situations or people.

Question 5

Internal validity

Answer 5

It is mostly concerned with causality, the extent to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to changes in the independent variable

Question 6

Reliability

Answer 6

Reliability refers to the ability of an experiment or measure to produce similar results every time (eg, two IQ tests taken months apart by the same person should yield a similar result).

Question 7

Confounding variables

Answer 7

Confounding variables are additional variables that influence the independent and/or dependent variable.

Question 8

Appraisal theory

Answer 8

Appraisal theory states that one’s evaluation of a stimulus determines one’s emotional response. In a primary appraisal, an individual determines whether a stimulus is a threat, positive, or irrelevant. If it is deemed a threat, the individual evaluates whether their resources are sufficient to cope with the stressor in the secondary appraisal. Secondary appraisal can actually include the resulting behavior or action

Question 9

Positive and Negative symptoms

Answer 9

Positive symptoms, which are “pathological excesses” (eg, hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech), and negative symptoms, which are “pathological deficits” (eg, apathy, inability to experience pleasure). Many people with schizophrenia also experience psychomotor symptoms (ie, changes in muscle tone or activity), which can occur either as a symptom of schizophrenia or as a side effect of medication.

Question 10

False Positive vs. False negative

Answer 10

A false positive occurs when the condition is said to be present but in reality is not. A false negative occurs when the condition is said to be absent, but in reality is present.

Question 11

Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Answer 11

The null hypothesis states that no significant difference or relationship exists between variables, whereas the alternative hypothesis assumes that a significant relationship or difference does exist between variables.

Question 12

Dominant Culture, Subculture, Counterculture

Answer 12

The dominant culture includes the established set of norms, values, and beliefs that define a society.

A subculture is a group of individuals who are characteristically distinct from the dominant culture, but whose values and norms still generally align with the dominant culture.

Counterculture opposes and rejects the norms/values of the dominant culture (eg, much of the antiwar movement of the 1960s).

Question 13

Utilitarian Organization

Answer 13

Utilitarian organizations compensate members for their involvement (eg, money, certification/diploma).

Question 14

Aggregate

Answer 14

An aggregate is a collection of individuals who share a common location but do not identify as a group (eg, all the people at a given store at 11:00 AM).

Question 15

Functionalism

Answer 15

1. Society = organism

2. Each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis)

Question 16

Conflict theory

Answer 16

Conflict theory focuses on how inequalities between social classes cause conflict.

Question 17

Rational choice/Social exchange

Answer 17

Indivuduals behaviors and interactions attempt to maxiumize personal gain and minimize personal cost

Question 18

Feminist Theory

Answer 18

Examines gender inequality in society

Question 19

Symbolic interactionism

Answer 19

Symbolic interactionism is a micro-sociological perspective concerned with the interpersonal interactions through which the subjective meanings that shape social reality are developed.

Question 20

Social Constructionism

Answer 20

Social constructionism suggests that reality is created through shared meanings and definitions arising from social interactions.

Question 21

Modernization, Secularization, and Fundamentalism

Answer 21

Modernization, the transition of a society due to industrialization, results in religion losing importance in society.

Secularization refers to the diminishing social/political influence of religion in society.

A reaction to secularization, fundamentalism refers to renewed adherence to strict, traditional religious beliefs/practices by some individuals.

Question 22

Cultural Transmission and Social reproduction

Answer 22

Cultural transmission describes the passing of cultural elements (material, nonmaterial, or both) from one generation to the next.

Social reproduction refers to the transmission of society’s values, norms, and practices, including social inequality, from one generation to the next (eg, the child of wealthy parents tends to be wealthy as an adult).

Question 23

Religious affiliation vs Religiosity

Answer 23

Religious affiliation describes an individual identifying with a specific religious group.

Religiosity (or religiousness) is the degree to which an individual internalizes and incorporates that religion into their lives, as demonstrated by the individual’s behaviors and beliefs.

Question 24

Power and Authority

Answer 24

power refers to the ability to control and influence others. Authority refers to whether others believe that the power is legitimate. There are three types of authority:

1. Traditional authority comes from longstanding patterns in society (eg, a queen is seen as having legitimate power in a monarchy).
2. Charismatic authority stems from the personal appeal and/or extraordinary claims of an individual (eg, Gandhi was seen as having legitimate power due to his ability to inspire people).
3. Rational-legal authority arises from the professional position a person holds (eg, a physician is seen as having legitimate power due to extensive training).

Question 25

Linguistic Relativistic Theory

Answer 25

The linguistic relativity theory (ie, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) proposes that cognition is influenced and/or shaped by language; in its stronger version, this perspective would suggest that children are unable to think about concepts for which they have not yet learned the words.

Question 26

Nativist Theory

Answer 26

The nativist theory, which proposes that language is not learned as are other skills/behaviors but is learned via an innate process hardwired in the brain, would suggest that only language exposure during a critical (time sensitive) period early in life results in fluency.

Question 27

Learning Theory

Answer 27

The learning theory, which proposes that language is acquired through conditioning and modeling, would be supported by evidence that praise for speaking a new word reinforces young children to say that word again.

Question 28

Interactionist Theory

Answer 28

The interactionist theory proposes that language acquisition is the result of both biological (eg, normal brain development) and environmental/social factors, particularly the interaction that occurs between children and their caregivers.

Question 29

Flashbulb Memories

Answer 29

Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed autobiographical memories of an event that was extremely emotional or distinct or personally significant. Flashbulb memories may be best defined by the degree to which individuals feel confident about their recollections, even when the recollections are not completely accurate or consistent over time.

Question 30

Fraction submerged and also an extension of specific gravity

Answer 30

Fraction submerged is equal to the ratio of the object’s density to the fluid’s density

Question 31

State vs Process Functions

Answer 31

State functions describe the equilibrium state of a system as a relationship between various thermodynamic variables, and a process function describes the path taken by the system to go from one equilibrium state to another.

Question 32

Heat Flow

Answer 32

Heat is energy that flows from high temperatures to low temperatures. Heat can be transferred through direct physical contact (conduction), through the flow of fluids (convection), or through emission of electromagnetic energy (radiation)

Question 33

Open, closed, and Isolated System

Answer 33

An open system allows heat and matter to be exchanged with the surroundings.

A closed system allows heat but not matter to be exchanged with the surroundings.

An isolated system does not allow heat or matter to be exchanged with the surroundings.

Question 34

Lytic Life Cycle

Answer 34

1. Attachment: The bacteriophage comes in contact with the bacterial cell wall and attaches to the host bacterium using its tail fibers.
2. Viral genome entry: The phage uses its tail sheath to inject its genome into the cytoplasm of the bacterial host.
3. Host genome degradation: Viral enzymes degrade the host genome into its nucleotide components to provide the building blocks for replication of the viral genome.
4. Synthesis: Loss of the bacterial chromosome ends synthesis of host molecules. As a result, the host machinery (eg, ribosomes), now under the control of the viral genome, begins to synthesize the components needed for new viral progeny, which then assemble inside the host cell.
5. Release: Many newly assembled viral progeny (virions) are released as the bacterium disintegrates (lysis) due to the action of lysozymes on the host cell wall.

Question 35

Male and Female Expression

Answer 35

Mammalian sex is determined by the expression of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. In males (XY), SRY expression induces the development of male sexual characteristics. In females (XX), the lack of SRY expression leads to the development of female sexual characteristics.

Question 36

Intracellular scaffolding, Kinesin, and Dynein

Answer 36

The intracellular scaffolding of a eukaryotic cell is composed of three families of protein filaments: Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Intracellular transport of cargo (eg, organelles, vesicles) is mediated primarily by two microtubular motor proteins (kinesin and dynein). Kinesin mediates anterograde transport (ie, away from the nucleus) whereas dynein mediates retrograde transport (ie, toward the nucleus).

Question 37

Glomerular Filtration Rate

Answer 37

The volume of fluid filtered through the kidney per unit time is known as the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), which can be modulated by controlling blood flow through the glomerulus. Higher hydrostatic (blood) pressure in the glomerulus increases GFR, and lower hydrostatic pressure decreases GFR.

Question 38

Sarcolemma and Transverse T-tubules

Answer 38

Muscle fiber action potentials propagate along the sarcolemma, the plasma membrane of the muscle fiber. The sarcolemma burrows deep into the muscle fiber, forming hollow structures known as transverse (T) tubules.

Question 39

Phosphatases, Phosphorylases, Kinases, and Ligases

Answer 39

Kinases transfer phosphate groups from NTPs to other molecules (or from other molecules to NDPs), phosphatases remove phosphate groups by hydrolysis, phosphorylases break bonds by adding inorganic phosphate across them, and ligases hydrolyze NTPs for the energy necessary to link two molecules together.

Question 40

Rreinforcement and Punishment

Answer 40

In operant conditioning, the outcome of a behavior impacts the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated; behavior increases due to reinforcement, and it decreases due to punishment. Positive reinforcement refers to a desirable stimulus being applied, whereas negative reinforcement is an undesirable stimulus being withdrawn.

Question 41

Taste Aversion

Answer 41

A conditioned taste aversion is a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism becomes ill after consuming something (eg, food, alcohol). Whatever was consumed prior to the N/V can become associated with the illness (even if it did not cause the illness) and is avoided afterward, long term. Taste aversions almost always link illness with foods (or smells), which is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation.

Taste aversion is a specific and powerful type of classical conditioning that occurs after just one instance of becoming ill following food/beverage consumption. Taste aversions are long lasting and can develop despite many hours passing between consumption and illness.

Question 42

Acquisition

Answer 42

Acquisition refers to the learning that takes place as an association is formed between the unconditioned stimulus (eg, food) and the neutral stimulus (eg, bell).

Question 43

Standardization

Answer 43

Standardization refers to test administration and/or scoring being done in a uniform manner. Consistency of test administration and scoring allows researchers to better compare one subject or group to the next.

Question 44

Reliability and Validity

Answer 44

Reliability describes the degree to which a measure or experiment is consistent (eg, a test produces a similar score for one person who takes it twice). Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure or experiment (eg, a test accurately assesses what it was designed to measure).

Question 45

McDonaldization

Answer 45

McDonaldization is the process whereby efficiency reduces individuality, calculability reduces quality, predictability reduces uniqueness, and control reduces the need for a skilled workforce.

Question 46

Ethnography

Answer 46

Ethnography is a qualitative method for the scientific study of human social phenomena. Using observation and interviews, ethnographies study people in their natural environments (within their own communities) and provide descriptive information about the cultures, behaviors, norms, and values in a given geographic location.

Question 47

Social Network Analysis

Answer 47

Social network analysis is an epidemiological technique mapping connections between individuals to study the spread of communicable diseases in a population.

Question 48

Content Analysis

Answer 48

Content analysis is a qualitative technique used to examine the text and images involved in human communication. It is used to assess one-on-one verbal communication, such as interview transcripts, or more widespread forms of communication, such as online content. Content analysis does not involve observations of individuals in their social environments.

Question 49

Intersectionality

Answer 49

Intersectionality describes the multiple, interconnected social identities (eg, gender, age, race, class) that intersect to impact individuals’ lives, perspectives, and treatment in society.

Question 50

Conditioning Studies

Answer 50

Implicit/nondeclarative memory is memory for things that cannot be consciously recalled, such as skills, tasks, emotions, and reflexes. Classically conditioned responses rely on implicit memory.

Question 51

Ascribed, Achieved, and Master Status

Answer 51

An ascribed status is one that is socially assigned, such as race.

An achieved status is one that is attained, such as one’s occupation (eg, doctor), notable achievements (eg, Olympic athlete), or failures (eg, college dropout).

Master status, which is either ascribed (assigned) or achieved (attained), dominates in most social situations and thereby tends to influence most aspects of one’s social life.

Question 52

Labeling Theory

Answer 52

Labeling theory suggests that when someone is labeled as deviant, the act of being labeled produces further deviance. The initial act is called primary deviance and, if labeled, results in social stigma such as disapproval by others. Internalization of the deviant label leads to further acts of deviance, called secondary deviance.

Labeling theory suggests that deviance lies not in the act but in the social response of applying a label to individuals. Labeling individuals as deviant has consequences, such as stigmatization, that lead to further deviance.

Question 53

Charles Cooley

Answer 53

Charles Cooley (not Mead) proposed the concept of the looking-glass self, suggesting that beliefs about oneself are derived through social interactions with others throughout one’s lifetime. The Mead theory differs from the Cooley theory by suggesting that interactions early in life result in one’s conception of self or identity.

Question 54

Mead Theory

Answer 54

George Herbert Mead, who is most associated with the sociological theory of symbolic interactionism, argued that social (rather than biological) factors influence identity formation. Mead suggested that the experience of “self” emerges through social interaction with others who play important and formative roles in one’s life (eg, family). The two aspects of the self are the “I” and “me,” which develop in stages:

1. Preparatory (or imitation): Babies/toddlers imitate others (eg, a parent’s hand gesture) and begin using symbols and language (eg, repeating a phrase used by a parent) without meaning comprehension. At this stage, children have no sense of “self” as separate from the world around them.
2. Play: Through play (eg, pretending to be a doctor), preschool-age children begin role-taking (ie, understanding the perspectives of others). When children understand themselves as individuals separate from others, the “I” component of the self has developed. Children then begin to imagine how others perceive them, which is the beginning of the development of the “me.”
3. Game: School-age children become aware of their position/role in relation to others. They begin to see themselves from the perspective of the more abstract generalized other, further developing the “me” to incorporate the values and rules of the society in which they live.

Question 55

Cognitive Dissonance

Answer 55

Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that contradictory or incompatible beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors cause a state of mental discomfort (cognitive dissonance) that results in motivation to reduce the conflict by aligning thoughts and/or behaviors.

Question 56

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Answer 56

Stereotypes are overgeneralized beliefs about groups and can be positive or negative.

Prejudice involves negative beliefs and feelings about members of a group.

Discrimination involves actions based on stereotypes and prejudice that negatively impact a group.

Question 57

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Answer 57

The implicit association test (IAT) is a psychometric technique designed to measure unconscious attitudes. The test requires participants to match words or images to one of two opposite categories as quickly as possible. Faster response times imply a stronger association between the word and image because the participant does not have to deliberate about a decision for very long.

Question 58

Social Groups, Dyad, and Triad

Answer 58

Social groups are composed of individuals who interact and identify with each other. As group size increases, the number of potential social ties (relationships between individual group members) also increases. Social groups can be large (eg, whole societies) or small.

A dyad (relationship between two people) has only one social tie, making dyadic relationships the most intimate (eg, romantic couples, business partners); however, dyads are also less stable than larger groups because if either person leaves, the group ceases to exist.

A triad (relationship among three people) can have three potential social ties, making triadic relationships more stable but less intimate than dyads. The presence of a cultural liaison increases the number of social ties, resulting in a more stable group.

Question 59

Doppler Effect

Answer 59

The Doppler effect occurs when the observed frequency and wavelength of a sound are shifted from those of the original due to relative motion between the source and the observer. The frequency shift is positive when the source velocity is negative (moving closer) and negative when the source velocity is positive (moving away).

Question 60

Observed Frequency

Answer 60

he Doppler effect can be approximated by the relative velocity between the source and the observer and the speed of the wave in the medium (∆f/f=v/c). The magnitude of the frequency shift is inversely proportional to the wave’s speed. The Doppler effect of light will result in smaller observed frequency shifts because the speed of light is much greater than that of sound.

Question 61

Transformation

Answer 61

Transformation occurs when prokaryotes pick up foreign genetic material from their surroundings. Eukaryotes do not participate in transformation.

Question 62

Electrical and Chemical synapses

Answer 62

Electrical synapses transfer information from one cell to another via passive ionic current flow through gap junctions. In contrast, chemical synapses use neurotransmitters to transfer information, which is a slower process.

Question 63

Desmosomes

Answer 63

Desmosomes provide tensile strength to epithelial cell sheets by anchoring the cytoskeletons, specifically the intermediate filaments, of two cells together. This creates a continuous cytoskeletal network that spans the entire epithelial sheet, one through which mechanical stress (eg, pulling, stretching, tension) can be distributed. Desmosomes are found predominantly in tissues that are subject to high levels of mechanical stress (eg, muscle tissue, epithelial layers of the skin) and prevent tissue tearing

Question 64

Gap Junctions

Answer 64

Gap junctions are cell-cell junctions that mediate communication between cells. Protein channels (connexons) in one cell align with complementary channels in another cell to form pores that facilitate the passive and bidirectional exchange of ions and small solutes. Gap junctions are found in cell populations that depend on coordinated activity, such as smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or neural tissue.

Question 65

Tight Junctions

Answer 65

Tight junctions are cell-cell junctions that prevent water and solutes from diffusing between cells and across the epithelial cell layer. These junctions form a watertight seal that fully encircles the apical end of every cell in the basal epithelial sheet. Tight junctions serve as a barrier and separate tissue space; they are found in a number of tissues, including skin, gastrointestinal tract, and testis.

Question 66

Esters naming

Answer 66

Esters are carboxylic acid derivatives formed by Fisher esterification, an acid-catalyzed reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. Esters are named by stating the alcohol chain prefix followed by the name of the carboxylic acid, with the suffix –ic acid replaced by –ate.

Question 67

Michaelis-Menten Equation Assumptions

Answer 67

The Michaelis-Menten equation relies on three assumptions:

1. The free ligand approximation states that substrate concentration [S] is constant during the reaction. This approximation is only true during the initial phase of the reaction, before a significant amount of substrate is converted to product. Substrate can also be depleted when it binds the enzyme to form the enzyme-substrate complex (ES). To ensure that ES formation does not significantly impact [S], the total concentration of enzyme in solution should be much smaller than any substrate concentration tested (Number III).
2. The steady state assumption states that the concentration of ES remains constant over the course of the reaction, allowing the rate of product formation to remain constant. Once [S] becomes significantly depleted, ES levels decrease and the reaction slows.
3. The irreversibility assumption states that the reaction proceeds only in the forward direction, and product does not get converted back to substrate. Once enough product accumulates, the reverse reaction occurs at non-negligible levels and further slows the net rate of product formation.

Question 68

Eukaryotic cells, Microscope, and Viruses

Answer 68

The double-membrane system illustrated in the question was used to separate B. henselae and HCV on the basis of size. In comparison to eukaryotic cells (10–100 µm in diameter), B. henselae cells and viruses are much smaller. The average prokaryotic cell is 0.5–2 µm in diameter, and most viruses range between 0.02–0.3 µm in diameter. Therefore, both B. henselae and HCV can pass through the first membrane from chamber 1 into chamber 2 and infect healthy hepatocytes. In contrast, movement into chamber 3 is restricted to HCV because the 0.2-µm pores are too small for B. henselae (0.5 µm) to pass through. Because hepatocytes in both chambers 2 and 3 were infected, it can be concluded that HCV played a role in the infection and not B. henselae (Choices B and D).

The question suggests the use of light microscopy in chamber 3 to observe the presence of the causative agent. A light microscope has a resolution of 200 nm (0.2 µm); consequently, investigators can use it only to observe cells larger than 0.2 µm. For viruses such as HCV, which are 100 times smaller than bacteria and 1,000 times smaller than eukaryotic cells, visual observations require greater resolution. As a result of the 0.2-µm pore size leading to chamber 3 and the low resolution of the instrument, investigators will be unable to observe the causative agent of the hepatitis visually using a light microscope.

Question 69

RNAs

Answer 69

Retroviruses are enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses that convert their RNA genomes into double-stranded DNA using the enzyme reverse transcriptase. During their lysogenic cycles, retroviruses enter the nucleus and integrate their reversed transcribed DNA with the host genome.

+ssRNA viruses such as HEV replicate their genomes in the cytoplasm of a host cell using their own viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, which is translated from the original viral genome upon infection.

Question 70

Disproportionation Reaction

Answer 70

A disproportionation reaction is a redox reaction in which both the oxidation and reduction occur to atoms of the same element. Disproportionation reactions can be easily identified by assigning oxidation numbers and then comparing the oxidation number of the given element in the reactants with the oxidation number of the same element in the products. If a compound undergoes disproportionation, some of the compound molecules supply atoms of a particular element for oxidation, and other molecules of the compound supply atoms of the same element for reduction.

Question 71

Formal charge vs. Oxidation state

Answer 71

Formal charge assesses the allocation of charge to an atom by dividing bonding electrons evenly between atoms. Oxidation state assesses the gain or loss of electrons by an atom by assigning all bonding electrons to the more electronegative atom.

Question 72

Glyceraldehyde

Answer 72

Glyceraldehyde is an aldose that can be derived from the oxidation of glycerol. It contains an aldehyde and two hydroxyl groups. D/L designations for all other molecules are based on D- and L-glyceraldehyde.

Question 73

Venturi Effect

Answer 73

The Venturi effect refers to the reduction of fluid pressure that occurs when flow velocity increases at constricted sections of a tube. Therefore, the Venturi effect is irrelevant to the pressure in the alveoli and lung exhalation. In fact, constricted airways can cause significant reductions in pressure that cause them to collapse.

Question 74

Resiliency of the Lungs

Answer 74

The resiliency of the lungs refers to the lungs’ ability to recoil after being stretched.

Question 75

Elastic Recoil

Answer 75

Elastic recoil refers to the elasticity of elastin fibers making up alveolar tissues. These fibers are crosslinked and are capable of being stretched like a spring. When stretched, these fibers exert a restorative force on the lungs following inspiration.

Question 76

Surface Tension

Answer 76

Surface tension refers to the tendency of a liquid to reduce exposed surface area due to attractive intermolecular forces between its molecules. Surface tension is signficant at alveolar surfaces due to hydrogen bonds between water molecules lining the alveolar sacs. Because surface area increases when the alveoli expand, surface tension exerts a collapsing pressure on the alveoli.

Question 77

Turbulent flow

Answer 77

Turbulent flow refers to a disorganized type of fluid flow that occurs at high velocities, not high pressures. Turbulent flow increases flow resistance, which would impede exhalation.

Question 78

Social facilitation vs. Social impairment

Answer 78

Social facilitation is a phenomenon whereby the mere presence of others enhances performance on easy, well-rehearsed tasks.

Social impairment occurs when the presence of others hinders performance on difficult or unfamiliar tasks.

Question 79

Deindividuation

Answer 79

Deindividuation is a loss of individual self-awareness when one is part of a large group engaged in an emotionally arousing activity (eg, a large crowd at a sporting event). Members of large groups tend to feel a reduced sense of personal responsibility and an increased sense of anonymity. When identities are masked (eg, Ku Klux Klan robes), deindividuation is even more likely to occur.

Deindividuation results in reduced personal identity and inhibitions as identification with the group increases. This can lead individuals to engage in uncharacteristic behaviors (eg, rioting, looting) while part of a large crowd. Appalling group behaviors, like public lynching, are often attributed to deindividuation.

Competing in a large bicycle race is not likely to induce deindividuation among the racers. Even though the cyclists consist of a large group such that identifying individuals may be difficult, the racers still bear a sense of personal identity because they are trying to earn distinction by winning the race.

Question 80

Dramaturgical Approach

Answer 80

The dramaturgical approach is a sociological theory suggesting that individual behavior can be explained using a theater metaphor. According to this theory, individuals behave as “actors” in front of others, the “audience.”

Question 81

Front stage, Impression management, and Back-stage

Answer 81

The front-stage self-involves impression management, which is the process of attempting to influence how one is perceived by others. For example, wearing a white coat and speaking with a soothing tone are ways a doctor uses front-stage behavior to manage the impression her patients have of her. The back-stage self involves behaviors that occur in private or informal settings, when an individual is completely comfortable and has no fear of criticism. For example, that same doctor might curse about one of her patients when she is out of earshot or is at home with her partner.

Question 82

Fads

Answer 82

Fads are trends or crazes occurring over a short period within a segment of the population. For example, wearing bell-bottom pants was a fad for hippies in the 1960s. The second paragraph states that resetting of norms regarding weight is widespread with no endpoint suggested, which is inconsistent with a fad.

Question 83

Mass media

Answer 83

Mass media includes all the routes through which information reaches large numbers of people in society (eg, television, Internet).

Question 84

Popular Culture

Answer 84

Popular culture is defined as the ideas, attitudes, and perspectives that are mainstream (ie, relevant to most people in society). Popular culture includes anything the majority of individuals in a society believe in (eg, freedom), do (eg, watch television), wear (eg, blue jeans), or buy/consume (eg, cell phones, McDonald’s meals).

Popular culture can be contrasted with high culture, which is relevant to a very small fraction of the population, usually those with wealth or education. For example, collecting museum-quality artwork is not considered part of popular culture.

Question 85

Cultural Evolution

Answer 85

1. Behavioral traits between related or unrelated individuals.
2. Occurs between or within generations
3. May occur slowly or quickly
4. Results from teaching, education, or scientific progress
5. Transmission by way of language, and behavior

Cultureal evolution describes changes in human values, practices, and or beliefs that are not due to genes

Question 86

Biological evolution

Answer 86

It influences natural behavior through natual selection of genes.

1. Genetic traits from parent to offspring
2. Occurs from one generation to the next
3. Slow, over the course of many generations
4. Independent of learning
5. Transmission by way of gene

Question 87

Periosteum

Answer 87

Periosteum, a thin layer of connective tissue that covers and protects the long bone.

Question 88

Epiphysis

Answer 88

Epiphyses, the rounded ends that have joint surfaces covered by articular cartilage. Beneath this is the spongy bone contains red marrow

Question 89

Diaphysis

Answer 89

Diaphysis, the hollow shaft (medullary cavity) filled with bone marrow. The yellow bone marrow is beneath diaphysis

Question 90

Metaphysis

Answer 90

Metaphyses, the regions where the diaphysis and epiphyses meet. The epiphyseal (growth) plate, a cartilaginous structure that lies between the epiphyses and metaphyses, is present only during childhood and serves as the site of longitudinal growth. When growth ceases, the growth plate is replaced with mature bone and is referred to as the epiphyseal line.

Question 91

Compact Bone

Answer 91

Compact bone is organized into concentric rings of bone matrix called lamellae. The entire unit of concentrically arranged lamellae surrounding a central Haversian canal is known as an osteon, or a Haversian system. Within each osteon, lacunae (spaces containing osteocytes) connect to one another via microscopic channels called canaliculi, which allow osteocyte waste exchange and nutrient delivery.

Question 92

Sarcomere muscle contraction

Answer 92

1. When the muscle fiber is at rest, the myosin head is in its high-energy conformation (upright and bound to ADP and Pi), and the actin filaments are bound by the regulatory proteins tropomyosin and troponin. Tropomyosin is an elongated protein that wraps around the actin filament to block myosin-binding sites on this thin filament. Troponin is a small protein complex associated with tropomyosin.
2. Following a depolarizing stimulus by a motor neuron, Ca2+ ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the cytosol. The abundant cytosolic Ca2+ ions bind troponin, causing a conformational change that ultimately pulls on tropomyosin and exposes the myosin binding sites on the actin filaments (Choice D).
3. When the active sites are exposed, the myosin head is able to bind strongly to the actin filament, forming a cross-bridge and promoting the release of ADP and Pi.
4. The dissociation of ADP and Pi causes the power stroke, which is the actual pivot of the actin-bound myosin head that drags the actin filament toward the center of the sarcomere. This directly results in shortening of the sarcomere (Choice C). The myosin head is now in its low-energy conformation.
5. A new ATP molecule binds the myosin head and the cross-bridge disassembles (Choice A).
6. Hydrolysis of the ATP molecule allows the myosin head to shift back into its upright, high-energy conformation in preparation for a new cycle of contraction (Choice B).
7. The cycle of cross-bridge formation and disassembly continues until motor neuron signaling ceases, and Ca2+ is sequestered back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Question 93

Aging

Answer 93

Aging involves biological, psychological, and social processes. Certain approaches include: activity, continuity, disengagement, and life-course

Question 94

Activity Theory

Answer 94

The activity approach to aging suggests that the transition to old age is eased by remaining physically active (eg, exercise) and socially involved (eg, community engagement).

Question 95

Continuity Theory

Answer 95

The continuity approach to aging suggests that people attempt to maintain (or continue) the same habits and lifestyle as when they were younger.

Question 96

Disengagement Theory

Answer 96

Disengagement theory, a negative approach to aging, holds that there is a mutual withdrawal between aging individuals and society.

Question 97

Life-course Theory

Answer 97

The life course approach is holistic and multidisciplinary, conceptualizing aging in terms of psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors across a lifetime. This approach emphasizes the reciprocal link between social context and individuals as they age. In other words, aging individuals influence and are influenced by the broader contexts in which they live (society, history, the economy).

Question 98

Total Fertility Rate

Answer 98

Total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children born per woman during her lifetime. For example, in 1955 (the middle of the “baby boom”) the TFR in the U.S. was 3.6 children per woman, whereas in 2012 the TFR was 1.8. For a population to remain constant without immigration, the TFR must be 2 (referred to as the replacement rate), which is the number required to replace the two individuals required to create the two children. A TFR above 2 means the population is growing and below 2, that it is shrinking.

Question 99

Crude Birth Rate

Answer 99

The crude birth rate (CBR) is the number of live births per year for every 1,000 members of a population, regardless of sex or age. An underdeveloped country may have a CBR of 50, whereas a more developed country may have a CBR of 10. CBR is used as a rough estimate of population growth through birth only. The last paragraph mentions birth rates declining, but does not provide any numbers (no specific data for CBR).

Question 100

General Fertility Rate

Answer 100

The general fertility rate (GFR), the total number of live births per year for every 1,000 women of childbearing age in a population, which is a better measure of fertility than the CBR because it accounts for the age distribution and sex ratio of the population.

Question 101

Age-specific Fertility Rate

Answer 101

The age-specific fertility rate (ASFR) is the number of live births per year for 1,000 women in a certain age group in a population. For example, the ASFR per 1,000 women age 25–29 may be in the hundreds, whereas the ASFR per 1,000 women age 40–44 may be in the single digits.

Question 102

Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning skills

Answer 102

A) Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles

1. Demonstrating the understanding of scientific concepts and principles
2. Identifying the relationships between closely-related concepts

B) Scientific reasoning and Problem-solving

1. Reasoning about scientific principles, theories, and models
2. Analyzing and evaluating scientific explanations and predictions

C) Reasoning about the design and execution of research:

1. Demonstrating the understanding of important components of scientific research
2. Reasoning about ethical issues in research.

D) Data-Based and Statistical Reasoning

1. Interpreting patterns in data presented in tables, figures, and graphs.
2. Reasoning about data and drawing conclusions from data.

Question 103

Effects of Temperature on Translation

Answer 103

1. Inhibition is hindered with a molecule or antibiotic

2. Temperature increases the function, efficiency of the translation

Question 104

Effects of Temperature on reactions

Answer 104

1) To assess temperature effects, look at the Keq, delta G values, and look at delta S
2) Look at if the efficiency or speed is affected by an increase in temperature

Question 105

Look at the structure of oxaloacetate and learn it

Answer 105

COOH-C=O-CH2-COOH