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PSYCH5121 exam notes > LU6: Conditioning & Learning > Flashcards

LU6: Conditioning & Learning Flashcards

1
Q

What is learning? (popular essay question)

A

A relatively durable change in behaviour/ knowledge that’s due to experience. Learning can be understood as knowing something you didn’t know before/ being able to do something you were previously unable to do.

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2
Q

How do we know we have learnt something?

A
  • almost all daily up behaviour is influenced by your past & experiences, this creates a change in behaviour.
  • learning is a fundamental concept at the core of psychology.
  • Learning can shape habits, personality traits & personal preferences.
  • learning is the process involved behind observational behaviour changes.
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3
Q

What are the 3 types of learning?

A
  1. Classical conditioning
  2. Operant conditioning
  3. Observational learning
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4
Q

What is conditioning?

A

Associations between events that occur in an organisms environment.

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5
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Type of learning in which a stimulus obtains the capacity to create a certain response that was originally created by another stimulus.

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6
Q

Who first described conditioning?

A

Russian psychologist, Ivan Pavlov in 1903.

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7
Q

How did Pavlov discover this?

A

He was originally studying the role of Salivation in the digestive process of dogs. He had dogs retrained in a chamber & collected saliva from an implanted tube in the dogs salivary gland. He’d produce meat powder to the cat & collect the saliva the dog produced.

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8
Q

Describe Pavlov’s discovery during his experiment & the process of classical conditioning:

A
  • he noticed the dogs become accustomed to the procedure, & would start salivating before the meat powder was presented. They would start to salivate in response to the bell used to present the meat powder.
  • Pavlov demonstrated that learned associates were formed by events in the organisms environment so he investigated further.
  • Pavlov paired the sound of the bell with the presentation of the meat powder several times, then presented the sound of the bell alone (without meat powder).
  • the dog responded by salivation to the sound alone.
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9
Q

What happened before conditioning?

A

Food (US) —> response —> salivation (UR).

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10
Q

What happens during conditioning?

A

Bell + food —> response —> salivation (UR).

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11
Q

What happens after conditioning?

A

Bell (CS) —> response —> salivation (CR).

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12
Q

The term conditioning came from:

A

Pavlovs desire to explore the “conditions” that produce this kind of learning.

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13
Q

What did Pavlov’s experiment show?

A

How learned associations were formed within the subjects environment.

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14
Q

What did Pavlov demonstrate:

A

How a stimulus responses associations- the basic building blocks of learning- are formed by events in an organisms environment.

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15
Q

What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

A

A stimulus that naturally & reliably evokes a response without prior experience.

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16
Q

What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?

A

The response that is naturally & reliably elicited by the UCS, that requires no previous experience.

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17
Q

What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?

A

A stimulus that does not initially prompt the UR.

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18
Q

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A

A stimulus that was once neutral but, through association with the US, now elicits a response.

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19
Q

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A

After conditioning has occurred, the response that’s elicited by the CS.

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20
Q

Classical conditioning happens on everyday life, true or false:
It’s possible for emotional responses, such as fear & anxiety, to develop through the process of classical conditioning.

A

True.

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21
Q

Define acquisition:

A

Is the initial stage of learning something- like Pavlov’s dog learned to drool at the tone of the bell (CS —> US) pairings.

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22
Q

Define extinction:

A

Process by which the association between the US (meat powder) & CS (bell ringing) is broken. When the bell is presented a sufficient number of times without being paired with meat the response extinguishes (CS alone).

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23
Q

Define spontaneous recovery:

A

Is a phenomenal discovered by Pavlov in which an extinguished CS suddenly elicits a CR again when there’s a period of time between trials ins classical conditioning experiment (reappearance of CR)- 24hrs rest.

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24
Q

Define renewal effect:

A

When a CR behaviour returns returns when a change of context/ environment occurs after extinction. When a CR has been extinguished the organism no longer omits the behaviour when the conditioned stimulus is presented.

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25
Q

Describe what happened in the little Albert experiment:

A

Watson & a colleague Rosalie Rayner, examined the generalization of conditioned fear in an 11-month old boy, known on the anals of psychology as “little Albert.” Watson & Rayner conditioned little Albert to show fear of the CS (rat). Little Albert then generalized his fear to a number of furry objects including a rabbit, a fur coat & Watson wearing a Santa Claus mask.

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26
Q

Define stimulus generalization:

A

Occurs when an individual responds to the stimuli that’re similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

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27
Q

Define stimulus discrimination:

A

The ability to distinguish between one stimulus & a similar stimuli.

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28
Q

Define higher- order conditioning:

A

Form of learning in which a stimulus is made first meaningful for an organism through an initial step of learning & then that stimulus is used as a basis for learning about someone with stimulus.

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29
Q

Define operant conditioning:

A

Is a form of learning where responses are controlled by their consequences in which a voluntary response is strengthened/ weakened, dependency on its favorable/ unfavorable consequences.

30
Q

Who first described this type of learning in the late 1930s?

A

B. F. Skinner.

31
Q

What is the most important aspect of operant conditioning?

A

Subjects tend to repeat responses that’re followed by positive consequences.

32
Q

What is a difference between classical & operant conditioning?

A

Classical conditioning: is where organisms behavior is automatic.
Operant conditioning: applies to voluntary responses that an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome.

33
Q

The term operant refers to:

A

The organism operates in its environment to produce a desireable result.

34
Q

When does reinforcement occur:

A

When an event following a response increases the likelihood of the subject making that response in the future.

35
Q

How did Thorndike’s experiment lead him to formulating the “law of effect?” What does it say?

A

Observed cats behaviour in a puzzle box he’d constructed. To escape, the cats required to complete a sequence of behaviours. Through trial & error learning, the cat would escape faster & faster on successive trails. The cat repeated effective behaviors & abandoned ineffective ones. This law and effect emerged from observations of cats, which suggested that behaviours followed pleasant / helpful outcomes would be more likely to occur in the future p, whereas, behaviours followed by unpleasant outcomes would be less likely to occur.

36
Q

True or false:
Reinforcement needs to be tailored to the specific subject & it needs to be assessed and react Essex for its effectiveness.

A

True.

37
Q

Explain the Skinner box experiment:

A

This experimental apparatus, aka operant chamber, was devised by skinner for testing lab animals in operant conditioning experiments- commonly refereed to as the Skinner box. A Skinner box is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that’s systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled. The rat in a Skinner box initially explores his surroundings, then eventually presses the lever in a box, a behaviour which is reinforced by a food pellet. The rat becomes conditioned by the positive reinforcement to continue pushing the lever.
* reward —> reinforcer —> desired behaviour increases. *

38
Q

Explain the concept of acquisition:

A

The learning of developing a skill, habit/ quality. The initial stage of learning has the same pattern of responding.

39
Q

Explain the concept of shaping:

A

To influence the form of something, especially a belief or idea of someone’s character. Reinforcement is closer & closer to desired outcome.

40
Q

Explain the concept of extinction:

A

The gradual weakening or disappearance of a response tendency. The process by which the association between the response & contingency is broken.

41
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

Strengthening the weakening of a response tendency. Response can be strengthened either by presenting positive reinforcer or by removing the negative reinforcer.

42
Q

What is positive reinforcement? Give an example.

A
  • Occurs when a response is strengthened because it’s followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. Eg) rat gets a treat when he presses the lever.
  • Increases the frequency of its associated behaviour by providing a desired outcome. Eg) human consciousness.
43
Q

What is negative reinforcement? Give an example.

A
  • Strengthening of a response because it’s followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. Eg) the rat presses the lever in order to remove the unpleasant effects of an electric shock.
  • Occurs if an individual can avoid/ escape from an aversive situation (escape learning).
  • The withdrawal of an aversive stimulus/ unpleasant event that, upon its removal, surges to strengthen a preceding response (increases the frequency of behaviour).
44
Q

What is escape learning?

A

Learning to make a response in order to escape from an aversive event.

45
Q

What is avoidance learning?

A

Natural adaptive behavior performed in response to danger.

46
Q

What is the effects of punishment?

A
  • aimed at decreasing negative behaviour.
  • the presentation of an aversive/ unpleasant stimulus after the behaviour in order to decrease the behaviour; or it’s the removal of a positive/ pleasant stimulus after the behaviour has been performed in order to decrease their behaviour.

*negative reinforcement strengthens a response, whereas punishment weakens a response. *

47
Q

Define punishment:

A

Any consequence that decreases the frequency of behaviour.

48
Q

Describe positive punishment and give an example:

A

Refers to applying an aversive consequence that reduces the frequency of/ eliminates a behaviour.
Eg) a cats behaviour (scratching furniture) is punishment by adding an unpleasant outcome (a squirt from a water bottle).

49
Q

Describe negative punishment and give an example:

A

Refers to removing something pleasant that reduces the frequency of/ or eliminates a behaviour.
Eg) taking a teens phone away.

50
Q

What is a schedule of reinforcement?

A

A specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time.

51
Q

What is continuous reinforcement?

A

Reinforcement every time the behaviour occurs.
Eg) Flips the switch when the light comes on.

52
Q

What is intermittent/ partial reinforcement?

A

Reinforcement of the desired behavior on some occasions but not others.

53
Q

Intermittent/ partial reinforcement is divided into 2 categories:

A
  1. Those based on the number of responses.
  2. Those based on the amount of time.
54
Q

What is under the category of those based on the number of responses:

A
  1. Fixed ratio
  2. Variable ratio
55
Q

What is under the category based on the amount of time:

A
  1. Fixed interval
  2. Variable interval
56
Q

Explain the fixed ratio schedule, give an example:

A

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following a set number of behaviors.
Eg) in the garment industry, workers are often paid “by the piece” or with a set amount of money for each finished garment. OR rat hits the button & gets a pellet.

57
Q

Explain the variable ratio schedule, give an example:

A

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following some variables number of behaviours.
Eg) rat gets a pellet an average if 6 times it presses the button.

58
Q

Explain the fixed interval schedule, give an example:

A

Provides reinforcement only when a fixed interval (time) has elapsed.
Eg) this timer will allow the rat to get only 1 pellet in a 10 minute interval- no matter how often the rat presses the button.

59
Q

Explain the variable interval schedule, give an example.

A

The time between reinforcements varies around the same average rather than being fixed.
Eg) fish (the reinforcers) are caught after periods of waiting for fish to bite that vary in length.

60
Q

What is observational learning?

A

Occurs when an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called “models.”

61
Q

Psychologist who researched observational learning?

A

Albert Bandura.

62
Q

What are the 4 key processes identified by Bandura in observational learning? (ARRM)

A
  1. Attention
  2. Retention
  3. Reproduction
  4. Motivation
63
Q

Explain the concept of attention:

A

To learn through observation, you must pay attention to another persons behavior and its consequences.

64
Q

Explain the concept of retention:

A

You may not have the occasion to use an observed response for weeks, moths even years. Thus, you’ve stored a mental representation of what you have witnessed in your memory.

65
Q

Explain the concept of reproduction:

A

Enacting a modeled response depends on your ability to reproduce the response by converting your stored mental images into overt beahviour.

66
Q

Explain the concept of motivation:

A

You’re unlikely to reproduce on an observed response unless you’re motivated to do so. Your motivation depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe the response is likely to pay off for you.

67
Q

True of false:
Bandura’s work on the observational learning of aggression provides one of the strongest arguments against exposing children to violent media.

A

True.

68
Q

Describe Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment:

A

Children watched films in which a woman beat up the Bobo doll. She hit him with a mallet, sat on him, threw him in the air etc.
After the children viewed the films, Bandura and his colleagues placed them in the room alone with the Bobo doll & observed their behaviour without their knowledge.
Subsequent studies also observed models being rewarded & punished for their behaviour.
If the children imitated the characteristic behaviours of the model —> Bandura knew learning had occurred.

69
Q

What did Bandura’s study show?

A

Showed that children exposed to an aggressive adult model displayed more aggression than children exposed to a similar but non- aggressive model. The researchers concluded that a TV depiction of an aggressive adult- model was as effective as a live model in increasing aggressive behaviour in children. Recent research found that exposure to media violence appears to desensitize people to the effects of aggression in the real world.

70
Q

Do violent images increase the level of aggression in youth?

A

What do you think??

71
Q

What are some of the concerns, regarding people, especially children, watching large amounts of violence?

A
  • People show muted reactions to real violence.
  • Exposure to media violence appears to desensitize people to the effects of aggression in the real world.
  • High exposure to media violence precedes & presumably can cause high aggresiveness.
  • Like most human behavior, aggression is influenced by a variety of factors such as genetic pre- dispositions, parental modeling & peer influence.

PSYCH5121 exam notes (12 decks)

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