LTM +amnesia

Question 1

What was the purpose of HM’s surgery, and what condition did it aim to treat?

Answer 1

HM underwent a surgical procedure to treat severe epilepsy, which had caused debilitating seizures that couldn’t be controlled by other means.

Question 2

What was the consequence of HM’s surgery on his memory?

Answer 2

After his surgery, HM experienced profound memory loss. He was unable to form new long-term memories and lost all memory for events that occurred after the surgery.

Question 3

What specific parts of HM’s brain were removed during his surgery, and what role do these areas play in memory?

Answer 3

HM’s surgery removed parts of his medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, which plays a key role in the formation of new long-term memories and spatial navigation.

Question 4

How severe was HM’s memory impairment?

Answer 4

HM could not remember having met the specialists he had been talking to even after a brief period of time. For example, if a specialist left his room for a few minutes and returned, HM could not recall ever having met them.

Question 5

What is amnesia, and what are the common causes?

Answer 5

Amnesia refers to memory loss that results from damage to specific brain regions, especially the medial temporal lobes. It can be caused by head injuries, Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, strokes, and other brain conditions.

Question 6

What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?

Answer 6

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories after the onset of brain injury. Retrograde amnesia refers to the inability to remember events that occurred before the injury.

Question 7

What kind of memory was impaired in HM, and how was this demonstrated in memory tests?

Answer 7

HM showed severe impairments in forming new episodic memories. For example, no matter what type of memory test was used—whether for words, faces, tones, or public events—he was unable to retain new information, even with recognition tests.

Question 8

What memory systems were not affected by HM’s brain damage?

Answer 8

Despite his amnesia, HM’s verbal and visual short-term memory were intact. He was able to perform tasks such as recalling digits in a sequence (digit span) or repeating a sequence of blocks (spatial span) without difficulty.

Question 9

What is procedural memory, and how was it affected in HM?

Answer 9

Procedural memory involves the learning of skills and procedures, like riding a bike or playing an instrument. HM’s procedural memory was unaffected, as he was able to learn new motor skills such as mirror tracing (where participants trace an image using a mirror reflection).

Question 10

How does priming work, and was HM able to demonstrate this effect?

Answer 10

Priming is a type of implicit memory where exposure to a stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus. HM still demonstrated priming effects, as seen in improved identification of degraded pictures, despite his inability to consciously recall having seen the pictures before.

Question 11

Who proposed the theory of declarative memory, and what does this theory suggest about memory?

Answer 11

Endel Tulving proposed the theory of declarative memory in 1972. He argued that declarative memory (the memory of facts and events) is divided into two subtypes: episodic memory (memory for personal experiences) and semantic memory (general knowledge about the world).

Question 12

What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory?

Answer 12

Episodic memory is the memory of specific events and experiences in time and space (e.g., your last birthday party). Semantic memory refers to general knowledge, such as facts, concepts, and meanings of words (e.g., the capital of France is Paris).

Question 13

What is the standard theory of consolidation in memory, and what does it suggest about episodic and semantic memories?

Answer 13

The standard theory of consolidation suggests that semantic memories, such as knowledge of facts and concepts, are gradually consolidated over time and become less dependent on the hippocampus. However, episodic memories, like personal experiences, may never fully consolidate and can remain vulnerable to disruption.

Question 14

How long can retrograde amnesia last?

Answer 14

Retrograde amnesia can affect memories from the past, sometimes for decades. In some cases, people may forget large portions of their life history, though this typically improves with time.

Question 15

What is semantic dementia, and what are its key symptoms?

Answer 15

Semantic dementia is a condition where individuals lose the ability to recognize or recall the meaning of words and concepts. Key symptoms include difficulty naming objects (e.g., calling a “rabbit” a “dog”) and impairments in understanding the meanings of words, even across different sensory modalities (e.g., difficulty recognizing a sound like a doorbell).

Question 16

What brain regions are associated with semantic memory, and how does damage to these areas affect memory?

Answer 16

Semantic memory is mainly associated with the lateral temporal cortex, especially on the left side. Damage to these regions, as seen in conditions like semantic dementia, leads to impairments in recalling and understanding general knowledge and concepts.

Question 17

What is the relationship between damage to the hippocampus and medial temporal lobes and memory?

Answer 17

Damage to the hippocampus and medial temporal lobes is associated with severe impairments in both episodic memory (especially for new events) and sometimes retrograde amnesia. These regions are crucial for encoding new memories and for consolidating information into long-term storage.

Question 18

How does damage to the lateral temporal lobes affect memory?

Answer 18

Damage to the lateral temporal lobes, particularly on the left side, is often linked to impairments in semantic memory, including the loss of the meaning of words and concepts. This results in difficulties with tasks that require general knowledge, like naming objects or understanding language.

Question 19

What processes are involved in long-term memory (LTM)?

Answer 19

Long-term memory involves three key processes: encoding (getting information into memory), consolidation (stabilizing information for long-term storage), and retrieval (accessing stored information when needed).

Question 20

What types of judgments were participants asked to make during the encoding tasks in memory studies?

Answer 20

In encoding tasks, participants were asked to make judgments about words at different levels: whether the word was in uppercase or lowercase, whether it rhymed with “plate,” or whether it fit a sentence like “The _____ was on the road.”

Question 21

What are the two levels of processing in memory encoding?

Answer 21

In the “levels of processing” framework, deep processing involves meaningful engagement with information (e.g., thinking about how a word fits in a sentence), while shallow processing involves surface-level features (e.g., simply judging if a word is in uppercase).

Question 22

Why is deep encoding considered more effective for memory retention?

Answer 22

Deep encoding, which involves processing information semantically and meaningfully, leads to better memory retention because it forms more durable and richly interconnected memory traces.

Question 23

What is “transfer-appropriate processing,” and how does it relate to memory?

Answer 23

“Transfer-appropriate processing” suggests that memory performance is improved when the processing done during encoding matches the processing required at retrieval. For example, if you study material by thinking about its meaning, you will perform better on a test that requires you to recall or apply that meaning.

Question 24

What is “context-dependent memory,” and how does it impact retrieval?

Answer 24

Context-dependent memory refers to the phenomenon where recall is enhanced when the context during encoding (e.g., the physical environment) matches the context during retrieval. For instance, people often remember information better when they are in the same location in which they learned it.

Question 25

What is the retrieval practice effect, and what does research show about its impact on memory?

Answer 25

The retrieval practice effect refers to the finding that actively testing yourself on material (instead of re-reading it) leads to better long-term retention. Research shows that self-testing after studying results in better memory performance, especially after delays.

Question 26

What are the benefits of retrieval practice compared to re-reading material?

Answer 26

Retrieval practice—actively testing yourself on the material—leads to stronger memory retention compared to simply re-reading or reviewing the material. This effect is especially noticeable when the memory is tested after a delay.

Question 27

How does the “levels of processing” approach explain memory encoding, and what is its limitation?

Answer 27

The “levels of processing” approach emphasizes that the depth of processing during encoding determines memory retention, with deeper, more meaningful processing leading to better memory. However, the approach is criticized for being circular, as deeper processing is often defined by its effectiveness in improving memory.

Question 28

How does “context-dependent memory” work in real-world scenarios?

Answer 28

In real-world situations, context-dependent memory suggests that being in the same environment or context where you learned something (e.g., studying in the same room where you’ll take a test) can improve recall.

Question 29

What do we know about encoding and retrieval processes in memory?

Answer 29

Both encoding and retrieval are critical for memory